Breaking the biomass bottleneck of the fossil free society. By Henrik Wenzel
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1 Breaking the biomass bottleneck of the fossil free society By Henrik Wenzel Version 1 September 22 nd,
2 Summary The focus on global warming and security of resource supply has led many sectors in society to look for alternatives to oil and other fossil resources. Biological resources biomass in brief is at present a preferred alternative in many sectors of society. Biomass is, thus, in growing demand for heat and power services as well as for transportation fuels and as feedstock for chemicals and materials i.e. in practice all sectors today being dependant on fossil fuels. At the same time, unfortunately, the food sector is also in growing demand for agricultural crops. World population is still growing and even more importantly, the composition of food is changing towards more meat on the menu, especially in the many countries in economic transition towards higher welfare; i.e. China, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, South Africa, Mexico, Brazil and more. Even without the new customers for biomass, this alone puts pressure on agricultural land and leads to new land cultivation. A look at proportions of biomass resources compared to the new customers, thus, shows that there is very far from enough for all. The world has already had an early warning in terms of potential influences from excessive biomass demand on food prices, namely the food crisis in During this period, market prices on food and feed crops increased by almost a factor of 2, and the part of the world population suffering from hunger and starvation increased from 800 million to 900 million people. The amount of biomass that the world can sustainably use is, therefore, concluded to be small compared to the potential demand for it. The problem is that a fossil free society implies a set of conditions that make biomass in high demand: biomass can be stored and thus provide flexibility in electricity production, it can be converted to high-density fuels for mobility purposes, and it is a key source of carbon feedstock All in all, everything points to the fact, that biomass (and agricultural land) may be a severe bottleneck in the fossil free society and that excessive use can have severe consequences for the world s forest resources, the food sector and the poorest part of the world population. We can, however, break this bottleneck. First of all, we must seek further energy savings. Secondly, we need to look for ways to de-carbonize society. There is a growing consensus among energy scientists and energy planners that society is heading towards increased electrification. The transport sector shall to the widest possible extent run on electricity and domestic and district heating shall be converted to heat pumps to the extent possible. This will help pulling more wind and solar power into our systems, and it will help balancing electricity supply and demand from fluctuating sources, because electricity is then stored in the batteries of the car fleet and in reservoirs for heating. Further electricity buffering can be provided by water reservoirs for hydro power or by various means of pressure based reservoirs, and smart grids and international trade will further assist in the balancing. 2
3 But these measures are not enough. We still need high density fuels especially for aviation, but to some extent also for long distance, heavy transport on road and for sea transport. We also need carbon feedstock for our chemicals and materials. Finally, some amount of storable fuel for providing flexibility on the supply side of our electricity systems will be a big advantage. Looking at proportions in how much biomass is available without influencing the food sector shows that we have far from enough even for these priority customers alone. We need to do something to reduce our demand for biomass further. Using hydrogen as an agent to capture the electricity from wind and solar power through electrolysis is an obvious route to follow. This is judged to be a significant part of the solution. But storing and transporting hydrogen is not easy, and due to this it may be attractive to use hydrogen as an intermediate energy carrier for the final production of carbon based fuels and feedstock. In this way, using hydrogen to upgrade and recover carbon from biomass may well be the final keystone for the successful fossil free society. Through a process called hydrogenation it is possible to use biomass as a source of carbon and react hydrogen with it to produce hydrocarbons of much higher energy content and energy density than the original biomass. Moreover, using the biomass and the biogenic carbon from hydrogenation in central applications like heat and power, it is possible to collect the CO 2 from the biomass and further recover and recycle it in a process here called Carbon Capture and Recycling, CCR. This will further multiply the use of the biogenic carbon from the biomass. Overall, upgrading and recycling biogenic carbon by hydrogenation and CCR, can approximately five-double our biomass potential for providing storable and high-density fuels and carbon feedstock compared to the presently applied technologies for converting biomass to fuels and feedstock. This can fully and effectively break the biomass bottleneck of the fossil free society. In this way, wind and solar power can save nature and land for food production. Assuming the next generation 6 MW wind mill, it is found that one off-shore wind mill can save 5 km 2 of nature or agricultural land equivalent to 2500 tons of food crop kernels per year equal to the average calorific intake of food for people In a Danish fossil free society we seem to lack 160 PJ of biomass residue. We could import this or produce energy crops ourselves, and for the purpose we would need 8000 km 2 of arable land equal to 30 % of Danish agricultural land. Or we could follow a wind-for-biomass strategy and put up 1600 off-shore 6 MW wind mills and create the 160 PJ extra biogenic fuel and feedstock by hydrogenation and CCR. By doing this, we would then save these 8000 km 2 of nature or agricultural area and food production equivalent to the calorific food intake of 16 million average world citizens. The cost of CCR is greater than the fossil fuels of today, but the extra cost of it still only amounts to around 2-3 % of Danish GDP. In this cost estimate, the benefits of ultimately ensuring supply security of energy and chemical feedstock, ultimately reducing greenhouse gas emissions, avoiding food crises due to excessive use of land for energy crops, and avoiding cutting down virgin forest are not included. A road map to the sustainable use of biomass and land for energy and material feedstock purposes should be developed. In doing this, we should aim at using biomass residues only, i.e. co-products and wastes 3
4 deriving from food production, forestry, industry, households, etc. We should distinguish between residues types and respect the special compositions and contents of these in terms of carbohydrates, nutrients (especially phosphorus), and proteins. It is tempting to conclude that manure and other wet residues should be reserved for biogas, and that the biogas should subsequently be hydrogenated and stored in the natural gas grid. Wooden, mainly carbohydrate containing residues should be hydrogenated to upgrade their energy content and quality up front. And care should in general be taken to use biogenic carbon at central applications as a first case allowing for a subsequent capture and recovery of the biogenic carbon. When finally converted to transport fuels, the carbon is lost with photosynthesis as the only subsequent way of recovery, and photosynthesis is unfortunately very slow in comparison. 4
5 Dansk resumé (summary in Danish) Samfundets fokus på drivhuseffekt og energiforsyningssikkerhed har fået mange sektorer til at se sig om efter alternativer til olie og andre fossile brændsler. Biologiske ressourcer eller biomasse, som det kort kaldes er de aktuelt foretrukne alternativer i mange af samfundets sektorer. Der er således stigende efterspørgsel efter biomasse til el og varme formål såvel som transportbrændsler og råvarer til kemikalier og materialer dvs. i praksis alle sektorer, der i dag er afhængige af fossile brændsler. Desværre stiger fødevaresektorens efterspørgsel efter afgrøder på samme tid som de nye kunder melder sig. Verdens befolkning vokser fortsat og, hvilket måske er endnu mere væsentligt, en stadigt større del af befolkningen vil forventeligt få mere kød på menuen, herunder især blandt befolkningerne i vækstøkonomierne i Kina, Indien, Malaysia, Indonesien, Sydafrika, Mexico, Brasilien m.fl. Selv uden de nye kunder til biomasse, sætter denne udvikling i fødevaresektoren klodens landbrugsarealer under pres for nye landindvindinger. Et overblik over proportionerne af jordens biomasse ressourcer sammenlignet med de nye kunder til biomassen viser klart, at der langt fra er nok til alle. Verden har for nyligt fået en early warning i forhold til den potentielle indflydelse, som en storskala brug af biomasse til energiformål kan få på fødevarepriserne, nemlig under fødevarekrisen i Gennem denne periode steg prisen på fødevare- og foderafgrøder næsten med en faktor 2, og antallet af sultende mennesker i verden steg fra 800 til 900 millioner. Det kan således konkluderes, at mængden af biomasse, som verden kan anvende bæredygtigt, er lille sammenlignet med den potentielle fremtidige efterspørgsel. Problemet er, at et fossil frit samfund indebærer nogle betingelser, som gør biomasse meget attraktivt: biomasse kan lagres og dermed medvirke til at øge fleksibiliteten af el-produktionen, så den bedre kan følge svingninger i efterspørgslen, biomasse kan omdannes til brændsler med stor energitæthed biomasse er den væsentligste kilde til kulstof og dermed råvarer til kemikalier og materialer Alt peger derfor på, at biomasse (og landbrugsareal) kan blive en alvorlig flaskehals i det fossil-frie samfund og at overdrevet brug kan få alvorlige konsekvenser for klodens skovarealer, fødevaresektoren og den fattigste del af verdens befolkning. Vi kan imidlertid knække eller rettere udvide biomasse flaskehalsen. For det første skal vi øge vore bestræbelser for at spare energi generelt. For det andet, skal vi finde kulstof frie løsninger. Der er herunder stigende konsensus blandt energiforskere og energiplanlæggere om, at samfundet skal elektrificeres. Transportsektoren skal i videst mulig omfang drives på elektricitet og el-drevne varmepumper skal ind i opvarmning af husstande, herunder også i fjernvarmen. Det vil hjælpe med at trække mere sol- og vindkraft ind i systemet, og det vil hjælpe med at balancere produktion og forbrug af elektricitet fra de fluktuerende kilder, som sol og vind er, fordi elektriciteten kan lagres i bilparkens batterier og i lagertanke for varme. Yderligere lagring af el kan etableres i form af vandkraft lagre eller forskellige former for trykbaserede lagre, og smart grids og international handel med el kan tilsvarende hjælpe med balanceringen af elsystemet. 5
6 Men disse tiltag er ikke nok. Vi har fortsat behov for energitætte brændsler især til luftfart, men i nogen udstrækning også til langturstransport og tung transport på vej og søtransport. Ydermere har vi behov for kulstofholdige stoffer som råvarer for vore kemikalier og materialer. Endelig vil en vis mængde lagringsegnet brændsel til at give fleksibilitet på forsyningssiden af el-produktionen fortsat være en stor fordel. Men et blik på proportionerne for, hvor meget biomasse der kan blive tilgængeligt uden at påvirke fødevareproduktionen, viser, at vi langt fra har nok, selv hvis vi afgrænser brugen til de her prioriterede formål. Vi er nødt til at reducere vores efterspørgsel efter biomasse yderligere. En oplagt vej at forfølge er at anvende brint som energibærer til at fange og lagre elektriciteten fra sol og vindkraft. Dette vurderes at være en væsentlig del af løsningen. Men det er vanskeligt at lagre og transportere brint, og på grund af dette kan det blive attraktivt at anvende brint som en midlertidig energibærer i produktionen af kulstofholdige brændsler og råvarer. På denne måde at bruge brint til at opgradere og genvinde kulstof fra biomassen kan vise sig at være den endelige slutsten i bygningen af det fossil fire samfund. Gennem en proces kaldet hydrogenering kan biomasse som kulstofkilde reageres med brint under fremstilling af kulbrinter med meget højere energiindhold og energitæthed end den oprindelige biomasse. Ved desuden at anvende biomasse og de biogene kulstofholdige brændsler fra hydrogeneringen på centrale anlæg som kraft/varme værker, er det muligt at opsamle CO 2 en fra biomassen og igen reagere kulstoffet i den med brint for herigennem at opgradere og genvinde den gennem en proces kaldet Carbon Capture and Recycling, CCR. Dette vil yderligere multiplicere brugen af det biogene kulstof fra biomassen. Samlet set vil opgradering og genvinding af biomassens kulstof gennem hydrogenering og CCR kunne femdoble biomassens potentiale for at levere lagringsegnede og energitætte brændsler og kulstofholdige råvarer sammenlignet med de i dag anvendte teknologier til at omdanne biomasse til biobrændsler og biokemikalier. Dette kan effektivt udvide biomasse flaskehalsen og muliggøre et fossil-frit samfund. På denne måde kan sol- og vindkaft via elektrolyse til brint spare naturarealer og landbrugsarealer til fødevareproduktion. Antager vi næste generation vindmøller på 6 MW, vil det betyde, at: En off-shore vindmølle kan spare 5 km 2 naturareal eller landbrugsareal med en fødevareproduktion på tons kerner om året, svarende til et gennemsnitligt kalorieindtag for mennesker I et dansk fossilfrit samfund ser det ud til, at vi kommer til at mangle omkring 160 PJ biomasse, når de nationale biomasse residualer sammenstilles med et prioriteret behov for biomasse til el, industri, transport og materialer. Vi kunne vælge at importere denne biomasse, eller vi kunne producere den selv i form af energiafgrøder. Dette ville kræve 8000 km 2 svarende til 30 % af det danske landbrugsareal. Vi kunne også følge en vind-for-biomasse strategi og opstille 1600 off-shore 6 MW vindmøller og producere de 160 PJ ekstra biogene brændsler og råvarer via hydrogenering og CCR ud fra vores eksisterende biomasse residualer. Herved ville vi spare de 8000 km2 naturareal eller landbrugsareal med en fødevare produktion svarende til kalorieindtaget for 16 millioner gennemsnits verdensborgere. Omkostningen ved CCR er større end de fossile brændsler af i dag, men den ekstra omkostning er stadig kun 2-3 % af vores nationale BNP. I dette omkostningsestimat er gevinsten ved den ultimative sikring af 6
7 In this way, wind and solar power can save nature and land for food production. Assuming the next generation 6 MW wind mill, it is found that one off-shore wind mill can save 5 km 2 of nature or agricultural land equivalent to 2500 tons of food crop kernels per year equal to the average calorific intake of food for people In a Danish fossil free society we seem to lack 160 PJ of biomass residue. We could import this or produce energy crops ourselves, and for the purpose we would need 8000 km 2 of arable land equal to 30 % of Danish agricultural land. Or we could follow a wind-for-biomass strategy and put up 1600 off-shore 6 MW wind mills and create the 160 PJ extra biogenic fuel and feedstock by hydrogenation and CCR. By doing this, we would then save these 8000 km 2 of nature or agricultural area and food production equivalent to the calorific food intake of 16 million average world citizens. The cost of CCR is more expensive than the fossil fuels of today, but the extra cost of it still only amounts to around 2-3 % of Danish GDP. In this cost estimate, the benefits of ultimately ensuring supply security of energy and chemical feedstock, ultimately reducing greenhouse gas emissions and avoiding food crises due to excessive use of land for energy crops are not included. Distinguish between biomass types Before any general conclusions can be drawn on how to prioritize biomass, however, we need to take a more detailed look. Biomass comes in many different forms with different characteristics, and we need to distinguish between these, when we discuss how to prioritize it. The overall consideration till now are valid as a general principle and as an input to considerations of how to manage a future carbon constraint, but other concerns like e.g. phosphorus recovery may, as mentioned earlier, give rise to specific priorities. First, the physical properties and composition of the biomass residue are decisive for how to prioritize it. We should especially distinguish between: wet and dry biomass. Wet biomass like manure/slurry is inherently more suitable for conversion by fermentation and less suitable for incineration. Likewise, a dry biomass like straw and forest/wood residues is inherently more suitable for thermal conversion. The composition of the biomass has further implications. Biomass residues can vary from containing: Mainly carbohydrates like starch, cellulose, hemi-cellulose including more or less lignin Nutrients especially phosphorus is expected to become an issue Proteins and the content may be important to a strategy of what to recover from the biomass besides carbon and energy. 30
8 In practice, residue biomass can be divided into four main categories covering the vast majority of biomass residues: Animal manure Straw, non-food residue of crops Forest residues Waste, from households, industry, gardens, etc. Illustrating biomass specific long term strategies Based on our knowledge of existing fermentation processes, it is tempting already to conclude that wet residues like manure/slurry and maybe also the wet/green part of household waste are obvious to prioritize for biogas. Of all known fermentation based processes, biogas is the most efficient in recovering energy, carbon and nutrients for fertilization. The produced biogas may, then, be upgraded by hydrogenation prior to use or storage. The dry, wooden and mainly carbohydrate containing residues, however, are obvious to use in thermal conversion or hydrogenation. With regard to this type of residues, the concerns for carbon management and breaking the carbon bottleneck are judged to be dominating, i.e. the previous consideration on these issues apply directly to these types of residues. It is tempting to conclude that such residues, on the long term, should be hydrogenated prior to their use in order to boost their potential up front. Whether straw belongs to this category is a question of how much protein value it has. There is still some uncertainty on this issue, and it still remains to be demonstrated that the so-called molasses or black syrup from alcohol fermentation of straw has a protein value high enough to justify the extra costs and conversion losses of the fermentation based conversion compared to the thermal conversion. Moreover, the fermentation based conversion to transport fuels will divert the carbon directly to transport, where it is lost in first step, instead of using it for heat and power first, allowing for a potential subsequent recovery for transport fuels in a second step. For very protein rich biomass types like some industrial wastes and other special fractions, care should be taken to try to recover the protein for feed or food prior to or in parallel with energy use. Fermentation based processes are superior for this. Finally, bio-refineries on special crops may have the possibility to increase the overall efficiency and functional output from the crop in terms of food, feed, energy and special compounds. It should, however, be remembered that the reference is to use the non-feed or non-food part of the crop for energy and let the human or animal metabolism do the refining of the food/feed part. Further, it should be noted that a future reference will be that subsequent to the metabolic refining, whatever is excreted by the body is not lost but will probably go through biogas fermentation for further energy, carbon and nutrient recovery. This implies that there is only very little room for conversion losses in any up front bio-refinery operation, and that the functionality or nutrition value should be very much improved to justify conversion losses. 31
9 Connecting the short and long term strategy It should still be noted that on the short term, wind power still gets a better substitution efficiency and CO 2 reduction by other applications than through electrolysis to hydrogen, e.g. by substituting heat through heat pumps or even electric boilers. In the transition towards the fossil free society, therefore, we should respect the orders of priority and take the most efficient and cost/effective steps first. But it should also be noted that the technologies that we promote in present time will to a wide extent anchor up in society due to the great inertia of technology development, and we should take care to build the right platform for the long term sustainability already now and not lock ourselves into any wrong tracks. This is why we need a road map to connect the present and short term with the longer term sustainable use of biomass. Such a road map will not be developed here, a lot more work needs to be done in order to give recommendations. But a few examples illustrating the idea of elaborating a road map are given below. Examples of elements of a road map for sustainable use of biomass for energy purposes: To have the long term target of not influencing the food sector and not create any food crisis due to competing demands for biomass between the food and the energy/transport sectors To have a long term target of hydrogenating dry wooden biomass in order to upgrade its potential up front. On the short term to prioritize a significant part of this for central applications for heat and power in order to ensure that carbon emissions are available and possible to recover. Build on the natural gas grid to connect the short and long term. On the short term the gas grid can facilitate the use of natural gas for transportation. This will increase supply robustness of the transport sector, and increase the potential of biomass to sustain heat and power as well as transport, because biomass can then indirectly release the pressure on the transport sector by cost/effectively saving natural gas in the heat and power sector. The gas grid can gradually be used for distribution and storage of biogas as well as any synthetic gas made from biomass. It can, thus, be an infrastructure component suited for the short as well as the long term. Do not invest in CO 2 removal from biogas. Use biogas directly for heat and power or upgrade biogas by hydrogenation. That will kick-start hydrogenation and lead to synergy with natural gas grid....etc. It is recommended that such a road map is developed. 32
10 References Bentsen N and T Astrup (2009): Biomass and waste resources: business-as-usual. CEESA project, May 15, 2009 Danish Energy Agency (2009): Background for socio-economic cost calculations on energy systems (forudsætninger for samfundsøkonmiske beregninger på energiområdet). Danish Energy Agency 2009 (in Danish). Dessus B, Devin B, Pharabod F (1992): World potential of renewable energies: actually accessible in the nineties and environmental impact analysis. La Houille Blanche 1992, 1, Edwards R, Szekeres S, Neuwahl F and Mahieu V (2008): Biofuels in the European context facts and uncertainties. Joint Research Centre, European Communities, 2008 Ericsson K, Nilsson LJ (2006): Assessment of the potential biomass supply in Europe using a resource-focused approach. Biomass Bioenergy 2006, 30, European Environment Agency (2006): How much biomass can Europe use without harming the environment? EEA: Copenhagen, Denmark, FAO Statistics Division (2007): FAO Statistical Yearbook 2005/6 vol. 1/2 issue 1, WEB Edition. Fischer G, Schrattenholzer L (2001): Global bioenergy potentials through Biomass Bioenergy 2001, 20, Hall D, Rosilo-Calle F, Woods J (1993): Biomass for Energy: Supply Prospects. In Renewable Energy: Sources for Fuels and Electricity. In: Johansson, T. B.; Kelly, H., Reddy, A. K. N., Williams, R., Eds.; Island Press: Washington, D.C., 1993; pp Hedegaard K, K Thyø and H Wenzel (2008): Life Cycle Assessment of an Advanced Bioethanol Technology in the Perspective of Constrained Biomass Availability. Journal of Environmental Science & Technology, 2008, 42 (21), IEA (2004): World Energy Outlook 2004; IEA: Paris, IEA (2005): World Energy Outlook 2005: Middle East and North Africa Insight; IEA: Paris, IEA (2007): Statistics by Country/Region. 2007; IEA (2007): Potential Contribution of Bioenergy to the World s Future Energy Demand. IEA Bioenergy, ExCo: 2007:02. IEA (2008): Key World Energy Statistics. International Energy Agency, Johansson T B, Kelly H, Reddy A K N, Williams R A (1993): Renewables-intensive Global Energy Scenario. In Renewable Energy: Sources for Fuels and Electricity. In: Johansson, T. B., Kelly, H., Reddy, A. K. N., Williams, R., Eds.; Island Press: Washington, D.C., 1993; pp Korshøj B (2010): Head of CCS strategy. Vattenfall A/S. Personal communication, September, 2010 Lazarus M L, Greber L, Hall J, Bartels C, Bernow S, Hansen E, Raskin P, von Hippel D (1993): Towards a Fossil Free Energy Future: The Next Energy Transition, A Technical Analysis for Greenpeace International; Stockholm Environmental Institute, Boston Center: Boston, MA,
11 Leemans R, van Amstel A, Battjes C, Kreileman E, Toet S (1996): The land cover and carbon cycle consequences of large-scale utilizations of biomass as an energy source. Global Environ. Change 1996, 6, Lund H (2010): Professor Aalborg University, Head of the ceesa project personal communication, Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2008): Earth a scarce resource. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture s report on the itneraction between food, feed and bioenergy. Danish potential in an international perspective. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture, January 2008 (in Danish). Olah GA (2005): Beyond Oil and Gas: The Methanol Economy. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2005, 44, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim. DOI: /anie Ramankutty N, JA Foley, J Norman and K McSweeney (2002): The global distribution of cultivable land: current patterns and sensitivity to possible climate change. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 11, Righelato, R and DV Spracklen (2007): Carbon Mitigation by Biofuels or by Saving and Restoring Forests? Science 317(5840): 902. Shell International (1995): The Evolution of the World s Energy System ; Shell Center: London, 1995 Swischer J, Wilson D (1993): Renewable energy potentials. Energy 1993, 18, Williams R H (1995): Variants of a Low CO 2 -Emitting Energy System (LESS) for the World; IPCC Second Assessment Report; Working Group IIa, Energy Supply Mitigation Options: Washington, D.C.,
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