Natursyn. Fra fabeldyr til systemer

Transkript

1 Natursyn Fra fabeldyr til systemer 1

2 Natursyn Fra fabeldyr til systemer

3 Indhold Content Forord Preface Forord Natursyn - fra fabeldyr til systemer 7 1.Glimt af naturhistoriens udvikling fra antikken 8 til sidste halvdel af 1800-tallet. 2. Klassifikation og stamtræer Klassifikation før Linné Linné. Livsforløb Linnés navngivning og systematik Efter Linné Blindgyder Det andebærende træ Fabeldyr Fugle, som sov i dvale - En svale i dvale Paradisfuglen Selvbefrugtning, autogenese Pragtværker Maria Sibylla Merian ( ) August Johan Rösel von Rosenhof ( ) Franz Michael Regenfuss ( ) Theodor Holmskiold ( ) Flora Danica ( ) John James Audubon ( ) John Gould ( ) J. C. E. Walter ( ) Niels Kjærbølling ( ) Afrunding Om samlingerne Det Classenske Bibliotek Den Danske Linné-samling 84 Forord Understanding Nature from fables to systems 7 1. Glimpses from the development of natural history from 8 Antiquity to the latter half of the 1800s. 2. Classification and genealogical trees Classification before Linnaeus Linnaeus. Life story Linnaeus naming and systematics After Linnaeus Blind alleys The duck-bearing tree Fabulous animals Birds in winter hibernation a swallow in a hollow Paradisfuglen Self-fertilization, orthogenesis Magnificent works Maria Sibylla Merian ( ) August Johan Rösel von Rosenhof ( ) Franz Michael Regenfuss ( ) Theodor Holmskiold ( ) Flora Danica ( ) John James Audubon ( ) John Gould ( ) J. C. E. Walter ( ) Niels Kjærbølling ( ) Rounding off About the collections 83 1.The Classenske Library 83 2.The Danish Linnaeus Collection 84 Med udstillingen Natursyn fra fabeldyr til systemer viser Det Kongelige Bibliotek for første gang en udstilling om et naturvidenskabeligt emne. Det kan lade sig gøre i kraft af fusionen sidste år mellem Danmarks Natur- og Lægevidenskabelige Bibliotek og Det Kongelige Bibliotek. Indtil 2006 var Det Kongelige Bibliotek et bibliotek, som havde teologi, humaniora og samfundsvidenskaber som fagområder. Mangefacetteret ja, men flere kom til, da Danmarks Natur- og Lægevidenskabelige Bibliotek og Det Kongelige Bibliotek fusionerede. Resultatet blev et bibliotek, som både var nationalbibliotek og universitetsbibliotek for hele Københavns Universitet. Efter universitetsfusionerne er Det Kongelige Bibliotek ikke universitetsbibliotek for hele universitetet, men der er tæt samarbejde mellem Det Kongelige Bibliotek og universitetets biblioteker. Udstillingen, Natursyn fra fabeldyr til systemer, viser et udvalg af de bøger, som hører hjemme i den naturvidenskabelige samling. Udstillingen fortæller med Carl von Linné som et væsentligt omdrejningspunkt en del af biologiens historie frem til Darwin og hans udviklingslære. Der fortælles også om nogle af naturvidenskabens blindgyder, og der vises et udvalg af bibliotekets pragtværker, fx den velkendte Flora Danica og den meterhøje Birds of America. Som for alle udstillinger er der tale om et snævert udvalg. Redaktøren har både valgt ud og valgt fra. Statens Naturhistoriske Museum, Landsarkivet for Sjælland m.v., Royal Scandinavia og Det Kongelige Teater har bidraget til udstillingen ved velvilligt at stille genstande til rådighed for udstillingen. Udstillingsarkitekt er Christina Back, som i samarbejde med mange afdelinger, ikke mindst Bevaringsafdelingen har udført et stort arbejde. Redaktør af udstillingen og forfatter til kataloget er bibliotekskonsulent Torsten Schlichtkrull. Det katalog, De sidder med i hånden, skylder sin eksistens With the exhibition Understanding Nature - from fables to systems The Royal Library for the first time presents an exhibition with a natural science subject. This has been made possible because of the fusion last year between the National Library of Science and Medicine and The Royal Library. Until 2006 The Royal Library had theology, the humanities and social sciences as subject areas. Multi-facetted yes, but more were added when the fusion became a reality. The result was a library which was both national library and university library for the whole of the University of Copenhagen. After the university fusions The Royal Library is no longer university library for the entire university, but there is close collaboration between The Royal Library and the university s libraries. The exhibition Understanding Nature - from fables to systems shows a selection of the books that belong in the natural science collection. With Carl Linnaeus as the important pivotal point the exhibition relates part of the history of biology up until Darwin and his theory of evolution. Some of the blind alleys of natural science are also described, and a selection of the library s magnificent works are displayed, e.g. the famous Flora Danica and the metre-high Birds of America. As in the case of all exhibitions it is a narrow selection. The editor has both been selecting and rejecting. The Natural History Museum of Denmark, Provincial Archives of Zealand etc., Royal Scandinavia and The Royal Theatre have contributed to the exhibition by kindly making a large number of objects available. Exhibition architect is Christina Back, who in collaboration with many departments, not least the Preservation Department, has done a sterling job. Editor of the exhibition and author of the catalogue is library consultant, Torsten Schlichtkrull. The catalogue which you are holding at the mo-

4 mange forskellige kræfter. Følgende personer har på forskellig vis bidraget til bogen/hæftet: Seniorforsker, phd Lisbeth Børgesen (bestemmelse af dyr og planter samt værdifulde kommentarer), håndbibliotekar, dr.theol. Christian Gottlieb (oplysninger vedr. Regenfuss og Chr. VIII), sektionsleder Britt Nederschier (korrektur og sproglige kommentarer), seniorforsker, dr.philos. Karen Skovgaard-Petersen (oversættelse af latin [titler og Linnés Paradoxa]) og seniorforsker, dr.phil. Erik Petersen for oplysninger vedrørende Linnés besøg hos Johann Albert Fabricius. De takkes alle. Samtlige billeder er skannet efter originalmaterialet ved Det kongelige Biblioteks fotografiske Atelier, den store hovedpart af fotograf Bent Grøndahl. De oversatte citater fra Maria Sibylla Merians værker stammer fra Rose Marie Tillisch & Martin Østergaard: Forvandling, Rose Marie Tillisch har velvilligt givet sin tilladelse hertil. Uden støtte fra Krista og Viggo Petersens Fond havde fremstilling af dette katalog ikke været mulig. Fonden takkes herfor. Michael Cotta-Schønberg ment, owes its existence to many different people s capabilities and efforts.the following have in various ways made their valuable contributions: Senior researcher, PhD Lisbeth Børgesen (classification of animals and plants as well as valuable comments), librarian to the Queen, DD Christian Gottlieb (information on Regenfuss and Christian VIII), section manager Britt Nederschier (proof-reading and language comments), senior researcher dr.philos. Karen Skovgaard-Petersen (translation from Latin [titles and Linnaeus Paradoxa] and senior researcher dr.phil. Erik Petersen for information on Linnaeus visit to Johann Albert Fabricius. My sincere thanks to all of them. All the pictures are scanned after the original material by The Royal Library s photographic studio, the majority by photographer Bent Grøndahl. The translated quotations from Maria Sibylla Merian s works come from Rose Marie Tillisch & Martin Østergaard: Forvandling, Rose Marie Tillisch has kindly given her permission to this. Without the financial support from Krista and Viggo Petersen s Foundation, this catalogue could not have been produced. I extend my warm thanks to the Foundation. Michael Cotta-Schønberg Natursyn fra fabeldyr til systemer Mennesket er nysgerrigt. Uden denne nysgerrighed havde vi ikke kunnet opnå de videnskabelige resultater, som vi har; det er nysgerrigheden, som får videnskabsmanden til at stille spørgsmål til det, han ser i naturen - og til at forsøge at besvare dem. Det gjaldt i antikken, og det gælder i dag. Videnskaben er uudtømmelig: Hver gang, den besvarer et spørgsmål, dukker uundgåeligt nye op, og den menneskelige nysgerrighed søger så svar på dem Denne udstilling koncentrerer sig om biologi, herunder systematik og evolution. Udstillingen kan kun vise et begrænset udsnit af de værker, som har formidlet den biologiske forsknings fremskridt. Der er i høj grad tale om punktnedslag. Udstillingen forsøger ikke at være retfærdig, selv nogle af de største naturhistorikere forbigås i tavshed. Udstillingen koncentrerer sig om disse temaer, som hvert har et eller flere subtemaer: 1. Glimt af naturhistoriens udvikling fra antikken til sidste halvdel af 1800-tallet. En slags tidslinie 2. Klassifikation og stamtræer Biologer har alle dage forsøgt at klassificere, og de har selvsagt altid gjort det ud fra de forudsætninger, de havde til rådighed. Først med Linné ( ) blev der skabt et brugbart system. Linnés klassifikationer har siden skabt en del af basis for udviklingslæren. Understanding Nature from fables to systems Man is by nature curious. Without this sense of curiosity we would not have achieved our considerable scientific results; curiosity makes the scientist question what he observes in nature and attempt to answer the question. That was true in Antiquity, and the same applies today. Science is inexhaustible: Every time it answers one question, new questions inevitably occur, and human curiosity then tries to find the answers yet again This exhibition focuses on biology, including systematics and evolution. It can only show a limited selection of the works that have mediated the progress of biological research. We are talking in terms of special bull s eyes the exhibition does not try to be fair, even some of the greatest natural historians are passed over in silence. The exhibition concentrates on the following themes, each of them having one or more sub-themes: 1. Glimpses from the development of natural history from Antiquity to the latter half of the 1800s. A kind of time line 2. Classification and genealogical trees Biologists have at any time tried to classify, and they have of course always done so on whatever assumptions were at their disposal. Only with Linnaeus ( ) was there created a workable system. Linnaeus classifications has since created part of the basis for evolutionism. 3. Blindgyder Her vises nogle af naturvidenskabens fejltagelser, dels fabeldyr og folkelige fejltagelser, men også fejltagelser begået af videnskabsmændene selv. 4. Pragtværker Især i 1700 og 1800-tallene blev der udgivet store pragtværker som fremviser naturen i billeder. 3. Blind alleys Here are shown some of the mistakes in the history of natural science, partly fabulous animals and ordinary people s mistakes, but also mistakes made by the scientists themselves. 4. Magnificent editions During the 1700s and 1800s especially, large magnificent editions were published, depicting nature. 6 7

5 1. Glimt af naturhistoriens udvikling fra antikken til sidste halvdel af 1800-tallet. 1. Glimpses from the development of natural history from Antiquity to the latter half of the 1800s. Videnskabens historie er lang. I Vesten regner man sædvanligvis de klassiske grækere fra det 4. århundrede f.kr. som naturvidenskabens grundlæggere. De drev ikke videnskab i moderne forstand, de var filosoffer. Men deres arbejde hvilede på den helt nye forudsætning, at man kan forklare naturen uden brug af religion og myter. Ikke at de var ateister, de løsrev blot forklaringsmodellerne fra religionens fortællinger. The history of science is long. In the Western World one usually regards the classic Greeks from the 4. century B.C. as the founders of natural science. They did not do science in a modern sense, they were philosophers. But their work was based on the brand new prerequisite that nature can be explained without the use of religion and myths. They were not atheists, they just detached the explanation models from the religious narratives. Blandt de mange græske videnskabsmænd i denne periode må Aristoteles ( f.kr.) nævnes som den fremmeste, han har på mange måder skabt det grundlag, mange af de naturvidenskabelige discipliner hviler på. Hans indflydelse på eftertiden er enorm og den varer ved her toethalvt årtusinde senere. På det naturvidenskabelige område skabte Aristoteles bl.a. den første zoologiske klassifikation, og hans kollega, Theofrast ( f.kr.), er blevet kaldt botanikkens fader. Endelig bør Plinius nævnes, Gajus Plinius Secundus d.æ. (23-79). Han var romersk videnskabsmand og forfatter. Han døde under Vesuvs udbrud i år 79, fordi han kom alt for tæt på i sine bestræbelser på at undersøge fænomenet. Plinius samlede sin tids naturvidenskabelige viden i et stort værk, Naturalis historia (Naturhistorie), som blev afskrevet og siden genoptrykt gang på gang de følgende mere end 1500 år. Værket er en uvurderlig skat for nutidens videnskabshistorikere. Værket blev siden brugt - også af Linné - som en ren guldgrube ved navngivning af planter og dyr. Den græske opblomstring af videnskab varede ikke ved, og de græske skrifter gik stort set tabt for europæerne. De blev imidlertid bevaret og oversat af de muslimske arabere, og det er herfra vi i det store og hele fik dem tilbage via kontakten med maurerne i Spanien. I det, som kaldes middelalderen, gik den videnskabelige udvikling ikke så hurtigt som i senere tider. Det hænger sammen med, at man ikke kunne frigøre sig Among the many Greek scientists during this period Aristotle ( B.C.) must be considered to be the most famous; in many ways he has created the basis upon which many of the natural scientific disciplines rest. His influence has been immense, and still is now two and a half millennia later. Within the area of natural science Aristotle i.a. established the first zoological classification, and his colleague Theophrast ( B.C.) has been named the father of botany. Finally, one should mention Pliny, Gaius Plinius Secundus the Older (23-79). He was a Roman scientist and writer. He died during the eruption of Vesuvius in the year 79, because he got far too close in his efforts to examine the phenomenon. Pliny brought together the scientific knowledge of the time in a large work, Naturalis historia (natural history), which was transcribed and since reprinted time after time during the following more than 1,500 years. The work is an invaluable treasure for scholars of our time. The work has since been used also by Linnaeus as a veritable gold mine when naming plants and animals. The Greek upsurge in science did not last, and the Greek manuscripts were more or less lost to the Europeans. However, they were preserved and translated by Muslim Arabs, and by and large this is where we retrieved them from via the Moors in Spain. In the so-called Middle Ages, scientific progress was not as fast as it were to become later on. This was due to the fact that it was not possible to disengage Nr. 2 Johannes de Sacrobusto: Opusculum Joannis de Sacro Busto Spericum. Ca fra de klassiske autoriteter. Men videnskaben var ikke gået i stå. Middelalderen var ikke så mørk endda, det var bl.a. i den periode universiteterne opstod, og skønt den videnskabelige udvikling gik langsommere end under opblomstringen i det antikke Grækenland og den efterfølgende renæssance, blev der udviklet megen ny viden. Nr. 2 Johannes de Sacrobusto: Opusculum Joannis de Sacro Busto Spericum. Ca Nogle af de klassiske demonstrationer af, at Jorden er rund. Sacrobustos bog, Textus de sphæra (Om sfæren) blev brugt som universitetslærebog fra 1200-tallet og nogle hundrede år frem. Den hvilede på Aristoteles, som lærte, at Jorden er rund og at den hviler i midten, dvs. at den befinder sig i centrum af universet. Ethvert veluddannet menneske vidste altså udmærket, at jorden er rund. oneself from the classic authorities. But science had not come to a halt. The Middle Ages were not all that dark, it was i.a. during this period that the universities were established, and although scientific progress was slower than during the upsurge in antique Greece and the subsequent Renaissance, much new knowledge was developed. No. 2 Johannes de Sacrobusto: Opusculum Joannis de Sacro Busto Spericum. Ca Some classic demonstrations that the Earth is round. Sacrobusto s book, Textus de sphæra (About the sphere) was used as university textbook from the 1200s and some hundred years on. It was based on Aristotle, who taught that the Earth is round and that it rests in the middle, i.e. that it is at the centre of the universe. Any well-educated person thus knew perfectly well that the Earth was round. 8 9

6 Nr. 3 Simon Paulli: Flora Danica. Kiøbenhafn I 1500-tallet løsgjorde man sig efterhånden fra de klassiske autoriteter. Ejendommeligt nok kom der tre vigtige bøger i hælene på hinanden i 1542 og 1543: I 1542 kom Leonhart Fuchs ( ): De historia stirpium (En undersøgelse af planterne), og i 1543 fik astronomi og anatomi deres basale værker, skrevet af hhv. Nikolaj Kopernikus ( ) og Andreas Vesalius ( ). I årene efter kom der mange nye værker og nu med mange illustrationer. Rigtig mange af billederne er af høj kunstnerisk kvalitet, om end nogle af dem har visse mangler i videnskabelig henseende. Indholdet var ofte en blanding af facts og fantasi, fordi forfatterne ind imellem ganske ukritisk videregav oplysninger (og genbrugte illustrationer) fra andre forfatteres værker. I Danmark udkom Simon Paullis Flora Danica i Efter sin tids normer et pragtværk. Bogen blev til på Christian IV s initiativ, og er på dansk, hvilket passer godt med dens hensigt: At beskrive lægeurter til gavn for den gemeene [almindelige] mand, som ikke havde råd til at søge læge. Teksten beskriver planterne og deres anvendelse, især den medicinske. Der er 384 tavler. Nr. 3 Simon Paulli: Flora Danica. Kiøbenhafn Titelstikket til Efteråret. Bogen er inddelt efter årstiderne. Den danske regering havde længe et ønske om at få en komplet dansk flora, og der blev gjort flere forsøg. Det vigtigste i 1600-tallet var Peder Kyllings plantelister. Kylling var Kongelig Botaniker og fik til opgave at udfærdige en katalog over alle danske planter. Gyldenlund seu Catalogus Latino-Danicus plantarum 404 (Gyldenlund eller en latin-dansk plantekatalog), er Danmarks første lokalflora og fortegner mere end 400 planter fra Charlottenlund som det hedder nu. I 1688 udkom Viridarium Dani- During the 1500s one gradually broke away from the classic authorities. By a curious coincidence, there important books followed in hot pursuit in 1542 and 1543: In 1542 came Leonhart Fuchs ( ): De historia stirpium (A survey of the plants), and in 1543 astronomy and anatomy got their basic works, written by Nicolaus Copernicus ( ) and Andreas Vesalius ( ) respectively. Over the years many new works emerged and now richly illustrated. A considerable number of the pictures are of high artistic quality, even though some show certain defects in a scientific sense. The content was often a mixture of facts and fantasy, because the authors from time to time and quite uncritically passed on information (and reused illustrations) from the works of other authors. In Denmark, Simon Paulli s Flora Danica was published in By the standards of its time a magnificent work. The book was compiled on the initiative of Christian IV, and is in Danish, which befits its purpose: To describe herbal remedies for the benefit of the man in the street who could not afford to seek medical advice. The text describes the plants and their uses, particularly the medicinal aspect. There are 384 plates. Nr. 3 Simon Paulli: Flora Danica. Kiøbenhafn Title print to Autumn. The book is divided into seasons. The Danish government had long harboured a wish to have a complete Danish flora, and several attempts were made. The most important in the 1600s was Peder Kylling s lists of plants. Kylling was Royal Bontanist and was given the task of preparing a catalogue of all Danish plants. Gyldenlund seu Catalogus Latino-Danicus plantarum 404 (Gyldenlund or a Latin-Danish plant catalogue), is Denmark s first 10 11

7 cum (Den danske have), en liste med flere end arter. Nr. 4 local flora and lists more than 400 plants from Charlottenlund, as it is called now. In 1688 Viridarium Danicum (The Danish garden) was published, a list of more than 1,100 species. Peder Kylling: Gyldenlund seu Catalogus Latino- Danicus plantarum 404 Hafniæ Titelbladet Nr. 4 Peder Kylling: Gyldenlund seu Catalogus Latino- Danicus plantarum 404 Hafniæ Den europæiske horisont udvidedes efterhånden. Dels fordi den almindelige udvikling skred fremad og dels i helt bogstavelig forstand, fordi man lærte mere og mere af verden at kende. De store økonomiske interesser i at finde søvejen til Indien medførte, at der blev sendt ekspeditioner ud, som sejlede længere og længere sydpå langs Afrikas kyst for til sidst at komme rundt om Kap det Gode Håb ( ) og derfra til Indien i Columbus sejlede i 1492 den anden vej og fandt uden at vide det en helt ny verdensdel. Man rejste af handelsmæssige årsager, og ekspeditioner blev sendt ud af de europæiske regeringer med det formål at grundlægge kolonier i fjerne egne, så man kunne få adgang til råvarerne dér. Efterhånden fik mange af ekspeditionerne et dobbelt formål: Politisk-handelsmæssige og rent videnskabelige. I 1700-tallet blev det almindeligt at udstyre ekspeditionerne med videnskabsmænd og kunstnere, som beskrev og afbildede de nyfundne dyr og planter. Det højnede den videnskabelige kvalitet. Nr. 5 Sebastian Münster: Cosmographia. Basel Verdenskort anno Sebastian Münsters ( ) kosmografi var den første trykte verdensbeskrivelse på tysk. I perioden 1544 til 1628 udkom den i alt i 46 udgaver på tysk, latin, engelsk, fransk, italiensk og tjekkisk. For sin tid var den en seriøs beskrivelse. Alligevel optrådte fabeldyr Title page The European horizon gradually expanded. Partly because general development was progressing and partly quite literally, because one got to know more and more of the world. The big economic interests in finding the sea passage to India meant that expeditions were sent out and went further and further south along the coast of Africa until finally sailing round the Cape of Good Hope ( ) and from there to India in Columbus sailed in the other direction in 1492 and found without realising it a completely new continent. Travelling was done for commercial reasons, and expeditions were sent off by European governments for the purpose of founding colonies in far away lands so that one might get access to the raw materials available there. Gradually, the expeditions got a dual purpose: political-commercial and purely scientific. In the 1700s it became quite common to equip the expeditions with scientists and artists, who described and depicted the newly discovered animals and plants. It meant an enhancement of scientific quality. No. 5 Sebastian Münster: Cosmographia. Basle Map of the world anno Sebastian Münster s ( ) cosmography was the first printed description of the world in German. During the period 1544 to 1628 it was published in a total of 46 editions in German, Latin, English, French, Italian and Czech. At the Nr. 5 Sebastian Münster: Cosmographia. Basel 1544 og sære folkeslag side om side med mere velkendte skabninger. Med ekspeditionerne udvidedes kendskabet til jordens forskellige egne og til deres naturhistorie. De sidste hvide pletter på landkortet forsvandt dog først ind i 1900-tallet. Blandt de opdagelsesrejsende kan man fx nævne personer som James Cook ( ), Alexander von Humboldt ( ) og David Livingstone ( ), som drog ud med vidt forskellige formål. Cook var søfarer, Humboldt videnskabsmand og Livingstone missionær. time it was a serious description. Even so, fabulous animals and weird peoples were featured side by side with more well known creatures. With the expeditions the knowledge of the various regions of the world and their natural history was increased. The last white spots on the map did not, however, disappear until some way into the 1900s. Among the explorers one might mention persons like James Cook ( ), Alexander von Humboldt ( ) and David Livingstone ( ), who ventured out with utterly different purposes. Cook was seafarer, Humboldt scientist and Livingstone a missionary

8 Description of passage and journey on this north-west passage, called Nova Dania]. Copenhagen Map of route. NB: North faces downwards. Cape Farewell in Greenland can be seen at the far left, Labrador at the top, and Hudson Bay (Novum Mare Christian) on the right. Nr. 6 Edward Tyson: Orang-Outang sive Homo silvestris. Or the Anatomy of a Pygmy Compared with That of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man. London, Nr. 6 Edward Tyson: Orang-Outang sive Homo silvestris. Or the Anatomy of a Pygmy Compared with That of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man. London, Pygmæen. Bemærk de menneskegørende træk ved figuren, fx stokken. Med Orang-Outang sive Homo silvestris (Orang- Outang eller Skov-mennesket) udgav Edward Tyson ( ), læge, i 1699 et studie, hvor han sammenlignede anatomien hos en pygmæ med aber og mennesker. Han nåede frem til, at Nr. 7 Jens Munk: Navigatio septentrionalis i.e. No. 6 Edward Tyson: Orang-Outang sive Homo silvestris. Or the Anatomy of a Pygmy Compared with That of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man. London, The Pygmy. Notice the humanising features of the figure, e.g. the stick. With Orang-Outang sive Homo silvestris (orangoutang or forest man) Edward Tyson ( ), physician, published in 1699 a study in which he compared the anatomy of a pygmy with monkeys and humans. He arrived at the conclusion that it was a kind of animal in between monkey and man. He had examined a Bonobo. The Bonobo is considered the closest living relative to man. Among Danish expeditions one should mention Jens Munk s ( ) abortive attempt to find the North West Passage. He had been sent out by Christian IV, because of the obvious commercial interests in finding a shortcut to Asia. Jens Munk was a naval officer. In the attempt to find the North West Passage he had to winter in the Hudson Bay, where nearly everybody died from scurvy (61 out of 64). No. 7 Jens Munk: Navigatio septentrionalis i.e.: Relation eller Bescriffuelse om Seiglads og Reyse paa denne nordvestiske Passagie [Navigatio septentrionalis i.e.: Nr. 9 Chr. Thornam: Skizzer optagne Galatheas reise København [1852]. /.Sketches done Galathea s journey Copenhagen [1852] det var en slags dyr midt imellem abe og menneske. Han havde undersøgt en Bonobo. Bonoboen regnes som menneskets nærmeste nulevende slægtning. Blandt danske ekspeditioner kan nævnes Jens Munks ( ) forgæves forsøg på at finde Nordvestpassagen. Han var blevet sendt ud af Christian IV, fordi der var klare kommercielle interesser i at finde en genvej til Asien. Jens Munk ( ) var søofficer af uddannelse. Under forsøget på at finde Nordvestpassagen måtte han overvintre i Hudson Bay, hvor næsten alle døde af skørbug (61 ud af 64). Nr. 7 Jens Munk: Navigatio septentrionalis i.e.: Relation eller Bescriffuelse om Seiglads og Reyse paa denne nordvestiske Passagie, som nu kaldis Nova Dania. København In the corvette Galathea set out on a classic expedition with the dual purpose of establishing trading relations on behalf of Denmark and conducting natural-scientific investigations. Galathea 2, , was a major Danish marine-biological venture, the results of which are still under publication, and the results of the third Galathea Expedition, , await editing and publication. The first Galathea expedition included five scientists and the illustrator Chr. Thornam. Because of the death of Christian VIII and The Three Years War the collated results were not edited, and Steen Bille s account is the only contemporary literary result of the expedition. No. 9 Chr. Thornam: Sketches done Galathea s journey Copenhagen [1852]. Portrait of a Nicobar. Chr. Thornam provided the illustrations for Steen Bille s account and for this booklet. Likewise several hundred drawings of plants and animals. The Renaissance also brought the museums. To begin with it was a question of princely cabinets of curiosities as well as the more scientifically orientated specimen cabinets, in both cases they were private collections. The most famous Danish Museum is Museum Wormianum, collected by physician, naturalist and antiquarian Ole Worm ( )

9 Kort over rejseruten. NB: Nord vender nedad. Kap Farvel i Grønland findes helt til venstre, Labrador øverst, og Hudson-bugten (Novum Mare Christian) til højre. I sejlede korvetten Galathea ud på en klassisk ekspedition med det dobbelte formål at skaffe handelsforbindelser til Danmark og at foretage naturvidenskabelige undersøgelser. Galathea 2, , var en stor dansk marinbiologisk satsning, hvis resultater stadig er under udgivelse, og resultaterne fra den tredje Galathea-ekspedition, , venter på bearbejdelse og udgivelse. Den første Galathea-ekspedition havde 5 videnskabsmænd og tegneren Chr. Thornam med. På grund af Christian VIII s død og treårskrigen blev de indsamlede resultater ikke bearbejdet, og Steen Billes beretning er det eneste samtidige litterære resultat af ekspeditionen. Nr. 9 Chr. Thornam: Skizzer optagne Galatheas reise København [1852]. Portrait af en Nicobar. Chr. Thornam leverede illustrationerne til Steen Billes beretning samt dette hæfte. Hertil kom adskillige hundrede tegninger af dyr og planter. Renæssancen bragte også museerne. Til en begyndelse drejede det sig om de fyrstelige kunstkamre og om de mere videnskabeligt anlagte naturaliekabinetter, i begge tilfælde var der tale om private samlinger. Det kendteste danske museum er Museum Wormianum, som blev samlet af lægen, naturforskeren og oldgranskeren Ole Worm ( ). Nr. 10 Ole Worm: Museum Wormianum. Amstelodami, Titelkobberet. Nr. 10 Ole Worm: Museum Wormianum. Amstelodami, No. 10 Ole Worm: Museum Wormianum. Amstelodami Title copper. Museum Wormianum (Worm s Museum) is Ole Worm s annotated description of his museum. It was published the year following his death in The title page shows a picture of the museum, a specimen cabinet as it looked in the mid-1600s. After the death of Ole Worm the objects from Museum Wormianum were included in the Royal Cabinet of Curiosities and some of them are therefore still present in The National Museum and other museums. Science also benefited from technical advances. The telescope and the microscope were invented almost exactly at the same time around 1600; both instruments brought considerable influence to bear on scientific knowledge. The invention of the microscope was very important in relation to biology. With the microscope one could see things, which one had never imaged the existence of. Small animals, cells etc. Three researchers from the 1600s should be mentioned: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek ( ), Robert Hooke ( ) and Jan Museum Wormianum (Worms museum) er Ole Worms kommenterede beskrivelse af sit museum. Den udkom året efter hans død i Titelopslaget viser et billede af museet, et naturaliekabinet som det så ud i midten af tallet. Genstandene fra Museum Wormianum indgik efter Ole Worms død i Kunstkammeret og derfor er en del af dem bevaret i Nationalmuseet og andre museer. Videnskaben drog også nytte af tekniske fremskridt. Kikkerten og mikroskopet blev opfundet næsten samtidig omkring år 1600; begge instrumenter fik stor indflydelse på den videnskabelige erkendelse. For biologien var opfindelsen af mikroskopet af stor betydning. Med det kunne man se ting, som man aldrig havde haft anelsen om eksistensen af. Små dyr, celler o.m.a. Tre forskere fra 1600-tallet skal nævnes her: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek ( ), Robert Hooke ( ) og Jan Swammerdam ( ). Antonie van Leeuwenhoek ( ) var ulærd. Hans levevej var handel, og han kunne ikke latin. Ikke desto mindre står han som en af videnskabshistoriens store skikkelser. Han fremstillede tidens bedste mikroskoper, som kun havde én linse, men de kunne forstørre op til 275 gange, og havde en opløsning på ned til én µm (mikrometer, en tusindedel millimeter). Han blev optaget i Royal Society. Flere end 100 af hans breve med iagttagelser af næsten alt han kunne finde på at lægge under mikroskopet blev trykt i Philosophical Transactions. Nr. 11 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek: A letter from Mr Anthony van Leeuwenhoek... concerning Spiders,... I: Philosophical Transactions, bd. 22. London, Edderkoppedele i mikroskop - edderkoppemorfologi. Nr. 11 Edderkoppedele i mikroskop - edderkoppemorfologi. /Spider parts in microscope spider morphology. Swammerdam ( ). Antonie van Leeuwenhoek ( ) was not a scholar. He was a tradesman, and he knew no Latin. Nonetheless, he is regarded as a major figure in the history of science. He produced the best microscopes at the time, which had only one lens, but which were able to magnify about 275 times, and had a resolution of down to one micrometre, a thousandth millimetre. He was admitted to The Royal Society. More than one hundred of his letters with observations of just about anything he might decide to put under a microscope were printed in Philosophical Transactions No. 11 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek: A letter from Mr Anthony van Leeuwenhoek... concerning Spiders,... In: Philosophical Transactions, vol. 22. London, Spider parts in microscope spider morphology. Robert Hooke was originally a physicist. In 1662 he became experimentalist at The Royal Society. In 1665 he published his large and richly illustrated Micrographia, in which he presented the results of his microscopical investigations. He showed many small animals and plants and parts of animals, for example the eye of a fly. The smallest parts of the structure in 16 17

10 Robert Hooke var egentlig fysiker. Han blev i 1662 ansat som eksperimentator ved Royal Society. I 1665 udgav han sin store og rigt illustrerede Micrographia, hvori han fremlagde sine iagttagelser i et mikroskop. Han viste mange smådyr og planter og dele af dyr, fx et flueøje. De mindste dele af strukturen i korkegens bark kaldte han celler. Hermed navngav han et af biologiens mest centrale elementer men først efter ca. 200 år forstod biologerne cellens grundlæggende betydning i alt liv. Nr. 12 Robert Hooke: Micrographia. London 1665 En loppe, Pulex irritans. Jan Swammerdam ( ) var en af grundlæggerne af mikroskopien. Han står som en af pionererne inden for entomologien (insektforskningen), hvor han, fx i Historiæ Insectorum Generalis (En almen beskrivelse af insekter) beskrev insekternes bygningsmåde og forvandling. Han stod for flere opdagelser, bl.a. de røde blodlegemer. En anden af entomologiens grundlæggere var Maria Sibylla Merian ( ), som var en af de få kvindelige forskere, som fik mulighed for at slå sit navn fast. Hun var også en fremragende kunstner, som udgav adskillige pragtværker sammen med sine døtre. Nr. 15 Maria Sibylla Merian: Der Raupen wunderbare Verwandelung Nürnberg Tavle XLI, Admiral, Vanessa atalanta. L Maria Sibylla Merians ( ) første bog, hvor hun beskriver insekternes forvandling; det var et emne, som optog hende hele livet. Merian regnes som en af entomologiens grundlæggere. Nr. 12 En loppe, Pulex irritans. / A flea, Pulex irritans the bark of the cork oak he called cells. In this way, he named one of biology s most central elements but not until about 200 years later did the biologists understand the fundamental importance of the cell in everything living. No. 12 Robert Hooke: Micrographia. London 1665 A flea, Pulex irritans Jan Swammerdam ( ) was one of the fathers of microscopy. He is seen as one of the pioneers in entomology (insect research), where he e.g. in Historiæ Insectorum Generalis (a general description of insects) described the build and transformation of insects. He is responsible for several discoveries, i.a. the red blood cells. Another of the founders of entomology was Maria Sibylla Merian ( ), one of the few female researchers who got the chance to make a name for herself. She was also an eminent artist, who published several magnificent works together with her daughters. Op imod oplysningstiden begyndte en videreudbygning af systematikken. Tidligere brugte man Aristoteles systematik, der ikke var meget udfoldet. Nr. 15 Maria Sibylla Merian: Der Raupen wunderbare Verwandelung Nürnberg 1679 Linné skabte det system, som blev det alment anerkendte. Det var også i denne periode, man fik de første klare erkendelser af, at Jorden må være ældre end de ca år, som man regnede med. I 1700-tallets Danmark var der naturligvis også interesse for udforskningen af naturen, og der udkom værker af meget høj kvalitet. Den fulde titel på Flora Danica var lang: Aftegninger paa de Planter, som voxe vildt i Kongerigerne Danmark og Norge, i Hertugdommene Slesvig og Holsteen, og i Grevskaberne Oldenborg og Delmenhorst til at oplyse det under Titel Flora Danica paa Kongelig Befaling foranstaltede Verk over disse Planter. No. 15 Maria Sibylla Merian: Der Raupen wunderbare Verwandelung Nürnberg Plate XLI, Admiral, Vanessa atalanta. L Maria Sibylla Merian s ( ) first book in which she describes the transformation of insects; it was a topic that fascinated her all through life. Merian is regarded as one of the founders of entomology. In the years leading to the Enlightenment began a further development of the concept of systematics. Previously one had used Aristotle s systematics which was not particularly expansive. Linnaeus created the system that were to become the one generally accepted. It was also during this period that it was definitely recognised that the Earth had to be older than the about 6,000 years which had previously been presumed. In Denmark of the 1700s the exploration of nature was, of course, also of great interest, and work of a very fine quality emerged. The full title of Flora Danica was long: Drawings of the plants growing wild in the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway, in the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, and in the counties of Oldenborg and Delmenhorst to illustrate the under the title Flora Danica at Royal Command instituted work about these plants. In order to make sure that the work became known throughout the country, free copies were distributed to the bishops, who were then supposed to distribute them between clergymen, learned schools etc. In return the recipients were expected to pro vide the botanical establishment and garden with information about the plants in their locality. Flora Danica was a true child of the Enlightenment

11 For at sikre stor udbredelse af værket over hele landet, blev der uddelt frieksemplarer til bisperne, som så kunne fordele dem til præster, lærde skoler m.v. Til gengæld skulle modtagerne så forsyne den botaniske anstalt og have med oplysninger om planterne på deres egn. Flora Danica var et ægte barn af Oplysningstiden. Nr. 16 Flora Danica, bd. 9. København Tavle 1580, Korn-Valmue, Papaver rhoeas L. never completed. The booklets published rank fully with Flora Danica. No. 17 O. F. Müller: Tegninger paa sieldne og ubekiendte Danske og Norske Dyr-Arter, henhørende til den Dyr-Historie som under Titel Zoologia Danica forfattes og udgives. [Drawings of rare and obscure Danish and Norwegian species of animal, appertaining to the history of animals which under the title Zoologia Danica is written and published]. Vol. 1-4, 1777 O. F. Müller ( ) studerede teologi og blev i 1753 huslærer på Frederiksdal ved Furesøen. Her boede han til 1773, hvor han blev gift. Arbejdet som huslærer førte ham ind i naturhistorien, og han blev en af Danmarks store naturforskere. Müllers hovedindsats lå på det zoologiske område. Müller var systematiker, beskrev mange nye arter og opstillede systemer til inddeling af arterne. Han påbegyndte en zoologisk pendant til Flora Danica, som hed Zoologia Danica; den blev dog aldrig fuldført. Den udgivne hæfter rangerer fuldt på højde med Flora Danica. Nr. 17 O. F. Müller: Tegninger paa sieldne og ubekiendte Danske og Norske Dyr-Arter, henhørende til den Dyr- Historie som under Titel Zoologia Danica forfattes og udgives. Bd. 1-4, Tvl. XIX, Müllers søstjerne, Lepasteria muelleri. Müller kaldte selv søstjernen for Taburet- Stiernen, men der er siden blevet opkaldt efter ham. Otto Fabricius ( ) var teolog, lingvist og zoolog. Som nybagt teolog drog han i 1768 til Paamiut/Frederikshåb i Grønland. Her missionerede han i fem et halvt år; i tre år levede han ganske Nr. 16 Flora Danica, bd. 9. København No. 16 Flora Danica, vol. 9. Copenhagen Plate 1580, Field Poppy, Papaver rhoeas L. O.F. Müller ( ) studied theology and in 1753 became private tutor at Frederiksdal by Furesø. He lived here until 1773 when he married. The job as tutor led him into natural history, and he became one of Denmark s great natural scientists. Müller s main contribution was within the sphere of zoology. He was a systematist, described many new species and designed systems for a classification of the species. He started a zoological counterpart to Flora Danica, called Zoologica Danica; but it was Nr. 17 O. F. Müller: Tegninger paa sieldne og ubekiendte Danske og Norske Dyr- Arter / O. F. Müller: Drawings of rare and obscure Danish and Norwegian species of animal usædvanligt blandt fangerne, boede og gik klædt som dem og tog del i deres liv, herunder sæljagt fra kajak. Dette huskes stadig i Grønland. Fabricius forlod Grønland, fordi han ikke tålte den hårde levevis. Efter forskellige embeder blev han præst ved Vor Frelsers Kirke, titulær biskop og professor. Fabricius foretog naturhistoriske studier i Grønland. Det havde han forberedt sig på, bl.a. ved at have medtaget et eksemplar af Linnés Systema Naturæ. Med udgivelsen i 1780 af Fauna Groenlandica (Grønlands dyreliv) blev den videnskabelige verdens kendskab til arktiske dyr udvidet radikalt. Nr. 18 Otto Fabricius: Fauna Groenlandica. Hafinae et Lipsiae Titelbladet I 1800-tallet tog den biologiske forskning for alvor skridtet bort fra synspunktet, at naturen er uforand- Table XIX, Müller s starfish, Lepasteria muelleri. Müller himself called the starfish the Taburet- Stiernen, but it has since been named after him. Otto Fabricius ( ) was theologian, linguist and zoologist. As a newly qualified theologian he set out in 1768 for Paamiut/Frederikshåb in Greenland. Here he did missionary work for five and a half years; for three years he lived and this was quite uncommon among the sealers, dressed like them and took part in their lives, including sealing from kayak. This is still being remembered in Greenland. Fabricius left Greenland, because the hard existence became too much for him. After various posts he became vicar at the Church of Our Saviour, titular bishop and professor. Fabricius conducted natural-historical studies in Greenland. He had prepared for this, i.a. by having brought with him a copy of Linnaeus Systema Naturae. With the publication in 1780 of Fauna Groenlandica the scientific world s knowledge of arctic animals was radically extended. No. 18 Otto Fabricius: Fauna Groenlandica. Hafinae et Lipsiae Title page

12 In the 1800s biological research moved decisively away from the view that nature is immutable. It was clearly recognised that species can develop, and that the concept of all species being immutable and created in the beginning, was not sustainable. It was also accepted that the Earth was much older than anyone had been able to imagine. What has happened since and it is a great deal is not the subject of this exhibition. 2. Classification and genealogical trees 1.Classification before Linnaeus The earliest attempts at biological classification were made by Aristotle regarding the animals and by Theofrastus and Dioscorides (1. cen. A.C.) regarding the plants. For the next one and a half millennium researchers followed in their footsteps. Nr. 21 Guillaume Rondelet: Libri de piscibus marinis. Lugduni Nr. 20 Conrad Gesner: Historiæ animalium. Bd. 1, Tiguri European writers in the 1500s and 1600s followed this classification and then arranged the animals in alphabetical order within each group. That was not always practical, as the animals had different orders in different languages, and because there was no systematic consistence in the listing. Nr. 18 Otto Fabricius: Fauna Groenlandica. Hafinae et Lipsiae erlig. Man så klart, at arter kan udvikle sig, og at forestillingen om, at alle arter var uforanderlige og skabt i begyndelsen, ikke er holdbar. Man så også, at Jordens alder var langt større end nogen havde kunnet forestille sig. Hvad der er sket herefter - og det er meget - er ikke emne for denne udstilling. 2. Klassifikation og stamtræer 1. Klassifikation før Linné De tidligste forsøg på biologisk klassifikation blev gjort af Aristoteles for dyrene og Theofrast og Dioscorides (1. årh. e.kr.) for planterne. Det næste halvandet årtusinde fulgte forskerne i deres spor. Aristotle was a pupil of Plato ( B.C.), became tutor to Alexander the Great and established his own school, Lyceum, in competition with Plato s Academy. Lyceum contained the first real research library of the Western World. Within the zoological area he wrote i.a. Historia animalium and De partibus animalium. In other works he dealt with animal reproduction and movement.in De partibus animalium he describes over 500 animals and completes a classification based on the different organs. Aristotle worked with a small hierarchy: 1. All animals divided into blood animals and nonblood animals. Blood animals were the vertebrates and non-blood animals the rest, i.e. molluscs, crustaceans, insects etc. 2. Animals with many common characteristics. 3. The individual species. Aristoteles var elev af Platon ( f. Kr.), blev lærer for Alexander den Store og oprettede sin egen skole, Lykeion, i konkurrence med Platons akademi. Lykeion rummede det første egentlige forskningsbibliotek i den vestlige verden. På zoologiens område skrev han bl.a. Historia animalium (Undersøgelse af dyrene) og De partibus animalium (Om dyrenes dele). I andre værker beskæftigede han sig med dyrenes forplantning og bevægelse. I De partibus animalium beskriver han over 500 dyr og gennemfører en klassifikation med basis i de forskellige organer. Aristoteles arbejdede med et lille hierarki: 1. Alle dyr opdelt i bloddyr og blodløse dyr. Bloddyrene var hvirveldyrene og de blodløse dyr resten, dvs. bløddyr, krebsdyr, insekter m.v. 2. Dyr med mange fælles karakterer. 3. De enkelte arter. No. 20 Conrad Gesner: Historiæ animalium. Vol. 1, Tiguri Rhinoceros, probably Indian rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis. Conrad Gesner ( ), Swiss physician and natural historian. From 1551 he published a series of books on animals. He arranged them in large groups, e.g. four-footed animals, birds and fish. Within each group the animals were arranged in alphabetical order. The rhinoceros is drawn by Albrecht Dürer ( ). It became a model for others, and the illustrations was repeated many times over for 200 years. That the rhinoceros is armour-plated is probably due to the fact that the model (owned by the king of Portugal) suffered from a skin disease

13 Nr. 23 Edward Topsell: History of fourfooted Beasts and Serpents. London Nr. 26 Otto Brunfels: Herbarum vivae eicones Argentorati, (som var i den portugisiske konges eje) led af en hudsygdom. Nr. 21 Guillaume Rondelet: Libri de piscibus marinis. Lugduni Tyklæbet multe, Chelon labrosus; Flyvefisk, sp. Exocoetidae. Guillaume Rondelet ( ) skrev med Libri de piscibus marinis (Et værk om havets fisk) en af de første seriøse bøger om havets dyr. Illustrationerne er vellignende, men der er også havfruer og andet godt fra videnskabens overdrev. Nr. 23 work in English about fifty years after the first edition. Its origin is a drawing by Melchior Lorck, who had seen a giraffe in Constantinople. Theofrastus was Aristotle s pupil and a member of the research college at Lyceum. He succeeded Aristotle as head of the school. As Aristotle concentrated on the animals, Theofrastus concentrated on the plants. In his works, Historia plantarum and De causis plantarum, he provides the foundation for a plant morphology, plant anatomy and plant physiology. He also describes about 500 species. Linnaeus named Theofrastus pater botanices, the father of botany. Theofrastus did not write a taxonomy, he did not get as far as that in his research. His two botanical works (he wrote about many things other than botany) are to be regarded as working tools rather than textbooks. De europæiske forfattere i og 1600-tallet fulgte denne opdeling og anbragte derefter dyrene i alfabetisk orden inden for hver gruppe. Det var ikke altid hensigtsmæssigt, fordi dyrene havde forskellig rækkefølge på forskellige sprog, og fordi der ikke var nogen systematisk sammenhæng i opstillingen. Nr. 20 Conrad Gesner: Historiæ animalium. Bd. 1, Tiguri Næsehorn, formentlig Pansernæsehorn, Rhinoceros unicornis. Conrad Gesner ( ), schweizisk læge og naturhistoriker. Han udgav fra 1551 en serie bøger om dyr. Han ordnede dem i store grupper, fx firføddede dyr, fugle og fisk. Indenfor hver gruppe var dyrene var anbragt i alfabetisk orden. Næsehornet er tegnet af Albrecht Dürer ( ). Det dannede skole og illustrationen blev gentaget igen og igen i 200 år. At næsehornet er i panser og plade skyldes formentlig, at modellen No. 21 Guillaume Rondelet: Libri de piscibus marinis. Lugduni Thick-lipped grey mullet, Chelon labrosus; Flying Fish, sp. Exocoetidae. With his book Libri de piscibus marinis (a work about the fish of the sea) Guillaume Rondelet ( ) created one of the first serious books about the animals of the sea. The illustrations are lifelike, but there are also mermaids and other interesting things from the fringes of science. No. 23 Edward Topsell: History of four-footed Beasts and Serpents. London Giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis; Lama sp. Edward Topsell ( ) re-issued Gesner s Edward Topsell: History of fourfooted Beasts and Serpents. London Giraf, Giraffa camelopardalis; Lama sp. Edward Topsell ( ) genudgav Gesners værk på engelsk godt halvtreds år efter førsteudgaven. Dens oprindelse er en tegning af Melchior Lorck, som havde set en giraf i Konstantinopel. Theofrast var Aristoteles elev og medlem af forskerkollegiet på Lykeion. Han blev Aristoleles efterfølger som leder af skolen. Som Aristoteles tog sig af dyrene, tog Theofrast sig af planterne. I sine værker, Historia plantarum (Undersøgelse af planterne) og De causis plantarum (Om planternes årsager) lægger han grunden til en plantemorfologi og -anatomi og en plantefysiologi. Han beskriver desuden ca. 500 arter. Theofrast blev af Linné betegnet som pater botanices, botanikkens fader. Theofrast udarbejdede ikke nogen systematik, dertil nåede han ikke i sin forskning. Hans to botaniske værker (han skrev om meget andet end botanik) er snarere arbejdsredskaber end lærebøger. Dioscorides (1.cen. A.C.) was a Roman physician and botanist. He wrote a book, De materia medica, which contained a description of about 600 species, but which as opposed to Theofrastus actual botanical works was more interested in the medicinal effects of plants. Botany remained a medical support-discipline until way into the 1700s; Even today botany is part of the pharmaceutical university course. With the Renaissance new and better botanical works emerged, where the illustrations were lifelike, and where there might be attempts at a taxonomy. The herbal books were very much designed for practical use. No. 26 Otto Brunfels: Herbarum vivae eicones Argentorati, Wallflower, Erysimum cheiri; Sweet violet, Viola odorata; Dog violet, Viola camina; Hedge violet, Viola reichenbachiae. The last two are uncertainly defined

14 Nr. 27 Leonard Fuchs: De historia stirpium commentarii insignes. Basileae, Dioscorides (1. årh. e.kr.) var romersk læge og botaniker. Han skrev en bog, De materia medica (Om helbredende sager), som indeholdt beskrivelse af ca. 600 arter, men som i modsætning til Theofrasts egentligt botaniske værker mere interesserede sig for planternes medicinske virkninger. Botanik forblev i øvrigt at være en medicinsk hjælpedisciplin til langt ind i 1700-tallet; botanik indgår den dag i dag i det farmaceutiske studium. Med renæssancen kom der også nye og bedre botaniske værker, hvor illustrationerne var naturtro og hvor der kunne være tilløb til en systematik. Urtebøgerne var meget anvendelsesorienterede Nr. 26 Otto Brunfels: Herbarum vivae eicones Argentorati, Gyldenlak, Erysimum cheiri; Martsviol, Viola odorata; Hundeviol, Viola camina; Skovviol, Viola reichenbachiae. De to sidste er usikkert bestemt. Lægen Otto Brunfels ( ) og kunstneren Hans Weiditz udgav en af de første trykte bøger, som indeholder naturtro gengivelser af planter. Titlen Herbarum vivae eicones betyder ganske enkelt Levende planteafbildninger. Hermed blev en tusindårig tradition brudt, hvor man holdt sig til de klassiske værker, som enten ikke var illustrerede eller hvor illustrationerne ofte var ret skematiske - eller ganske underlagt kunstneriske hensyn. Nr. 27 Leonard Fuchs: De historia stirpium commentarii insignes. Basileae, Sort morbær, Morus nigra. Leonard Fuchs ( ) udgav i 1542 De historia stirpium (en undersøgelse af planterne). Physician Otto Brunfels ( ) and artist Hans Weiditz published one of the first printed books to contain lifelike reproductions of plants. The title Herbarum vivae eicones quite simply means Living plant depictions. Here came a break with a thousand year old tradition, where one stuck to the classical works, which were either not illustrated or where the illustrations were often rather schematic or completely subject to artistic considerations. No. 27 Leonard Fuchs: De historia stirpium commentarii insignes. Basileae, Black mulberry, Morus nigra. Leonard Fuchs ( ) in 1542 published De historia stirpium (an examination of plants). The work contains fine illustrations of about 500 plants and gives an account of the individual plants habitats, times for collection and effects. Fuchs also explains the many different names that each plant might have. In this way he is one of Linnaeus predecessors. As something quite new, Fuchs books included plants from the relatively recently discovered America. Linnaeus was not the first to try to make an actual systematisation, and his work would not have been possible without predecessors. One prerequisite of Linnaeus work was the use of the concept of genus, that animals and plants can be more or less related. Botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort ( ) divided the plants into no less than 752 genera. During his time at grammar school Linnaeus got to know the works of Tournefort. His method became of great importance to Linnaeus. Tournefort ( ) established in Elemens de Botanique pour connoître les Plantes a classification system based on the form of corolla. Tournefort was introduced to the young Linnaeus by his teacher at school

15 Værket indeholder gode illustrationer af ca. 500 planter og gør rede for de enkelte planters voksesteder, tider for indsamling og virkninger. Fuchs gør også rede for de mange forskellige navne en enkelt plante kan have. På den måde var han en af Linnés forgængere. Som noget helt nyt havde Fuchs bøger planter med fra det forholdsvis nyopdagede Amerika. Linné var ikke den første, som søgte at foretage en egentlig systematisering, og hans værk havde ikke været muligt uden forgængere. En af forudsætningerne for Linnés arbejde var anvendelsen af slægtsbegrebet, at dyr og planter kan være mere eller mindre beslægtede. Botanikeren Joseph Pitton de Tournefort opdelte planterne i ikke færre end 752 slægter (genus). I sin gymnasietid stiftede Linné bl.a. kendskab til Tourneforts værker. Metoden blev af stor betydning for Linné. Tournefort ( ) etablerede i Elemens de Botanique pour connoître les Plantes et klassifikationssystem med udgangspunkt i blomsterkronernes form. Tournefort blev introduceret den unge Linné af hans lærer på gymnasiet. I Historia plantarum (en undersøgelse af planterne), som er på tre bind, fremkommer John Ray ( ) med en argumentation om artsbegrebet, som skulle få betydning i evolutionsdiskussionerne i lang tid fremover: En art kan aldrig opstå af frøet fra en anden. Han udleder videre, at de forskelle, der kan ses mellem forskellige individer af samme art, er tilfældige og ikke kan bruges til afgrænsning af arten. I konsekvens heraf mener han, at frøets eller frugtens egenskaber bør lægges til grund for klassifikationen. Hermed nærmer han sig det biologiske artsbegreb, som senere Buffon ( ) gør sig til talsmand for. Med Historia plantarum ønsker Ray at omtale og klassificere samtlige kendte plantearter. Historia plantarum var også et af de værker, Linné lærte at kende i gymnasiet. At definere artsbegrebet er ikke enkelt, heller ikke i dag. Naturen lader sig ikke sådan putte i kasser, om ikke for andet, så fordi Darwin har lært os, at arter ikke er statiske størrelser, men foranderlige. Alle arter, også In Historia plantarum (an examination of the plants), in three volumes, John Ray ( ) put forward an argumentation about the species concept which were to bring influence to bear on evolution discussions for a long time to come: One species can never emerge from the seed of another. He further deducts that the differences that can be observed between different individuals of the same species, are random and cannot be used for delimitation of the species. He consequently finds that the characteristics of the seed or the fruit should form the basis for the classification. In this he approaches the biological specific notion, which Buffon ( ) later advocates. With Historia plantarum Ray wishes to mention and classify all known species of plant. Historia plantarum was also one of the works which Linnaeus was introduced to at school. Defining the concept of species is not simple, not even today. Nature is not to be placed in boxes, if not for other reasons then because Darwin has taught us that species are not static quantities, but variable. All species, including man, are subject to evolution and all species can in principle and over time be divided into two or more independent species, or they might die out. The most immediately obvious concept of species is the morphological one, to determine species according to appearance. But it is not unproblematic. Geographic distance or even just different living conditions can mean that one species looks so different from one place to another, that it is not easy to realise that it is in fact the same. The biological concept of species, a species is a group of individuals who by mating produce fertile offspring, is the one accepted today. By demanding that the offspring must be fertile, one achieves partly that the species can actually continue its existence, and partly being able to exclude cases like the horse and the donkey who can produce offspring, but where the offspring, the mule, is not fertile. The biological concept of species is able to group very different looking mennesket, er underkastet evolution og alle arter kan principielt med tiden blive delt i to eller flere selvstændige arter, eller de kan uddø. Det umiddelbart mest indlysende artsbegreb er det morfologiske, at bestemme arter efter udseendet. Men det er ikke uproblematisk. Geografisk afstand eller bare forskellige leveforhold kan medføre, at en art får et så forskelligt udseende fra det ene sted til det andet, at man ikke let indser, at det er samme art. Det biologiske artsbegreb, en art er en gruppe individer, som ved parring frembringer fertilt afkom er det, som har vundet genklang i dag. Ved at kræve, at afkommet skal være fertilt opnår man dels, at arten rent faktisk kan fortsætte sin eksistens, og dels at udelukke tilfælde som hesten og æslet, som godt kan få afkom, men hvor afkommet, muldyret, ikke er fertilt. Det biologiske artsbegreb formår at samle meget forskelligt udseende individer i samme art; to hunderacer af meget forskelligt udseende kan sagtens få fertilt afkom; de er altså i modsætning til hesten og æslet medlemmer af samme art. I praksis er det mest brugte dog det morfologiske, det formmæssige, artsbegreb; det er let at gå til, og ofte fuldt tilstrækkeligt. Heller ikke det biologiske artsbegreb er rigtig tilfredsstillende. Bakterier, fx, forplanter sig normalt ved deling, ikke ved kønnet formering, men de kan godt som supplement til normal celledeling vælge at to bakterier udveksler dele af kromosomer i forbindelse med formeringen. Planter bruger også kønnet formering, men mange formerer sig vegetativt, ved stiklinger o.l. Også mange dyr kan undvære kønnet formering; de kan dele sig eller eventuelt befrugte sig selv. Med fremkomsten af muligheden for at aflæse dnastrengen, har biologerne fået et nyt instrument at spille på. Man kan ganske præcist se, hvor store forskelle og ligheder der er mellem to arters dna - og dermed har man bedre mulighed for at fastslå, om der er tale om en selvstændig art eller ej, og dels fastlægge slægtskabsforholdet. Men heller ikke dnaanalyse kan løse alle problemer. individuals in the same species; two breeds of dog of very different appearance can easily produce fertile offspring; as opposed to the horse and donkey they are thus members of the same species. In practice though, the morphological concept of species that has to do with form, is the most common; it is easy to understand, and often quite sufficient. Neither is the biological concept of species really satisfactory. Bacteria, for example, normally propagate by division, not by sexual reproduction, but they might as supplement to normal cell division chose that two bacteria exchange parts of chromosomes in connection with the reproduction. Plants, too, use sexual reproduction; but many reproduce asexually, by seedlings etc. Also many animals can dispense with sexual reproduction; they can divide themselves or possibly fertilize themselves. With the possibility of interpreting the DNA string, biologists have been given a new instrument to play. One can see precisely how great the differences or similarities exist between the DNA of two species and therefore has a better chance of determining whether it is a question of an independent species or not, and also of determining the relationship. But a DNA analysis cannot solve all the problems either

16 2. Linné. Livsforløb 2.Linnaeus. Life story Carl Linné (latiniseret: Linnaeus) ( ) blev født som søn af kapellanen, senere sognepræst, i Råshult i det lille landsogn, Stenbrohult, i Småland i Sverige. Faderen var botanisk interesseret og havde sin egen urtehave, og han opmuntrede Carl til selv at dyrke planter i en stump jord, som han havde fået af faderen som have. Nr. 31 Martin Hoffmans portræt af Linné i Laplandsdress. Linnaeus ( ) was born as son of the curate, later vicar in Råshult in the small rural parish of Stenbrohult, in Småland in Sweden. His father was interested in botany and had his own herbal garden, and he encouraged Carl to grow plants in the small piece of soil which he had given him as a garden. No. 31 Martin Hoffman s portrait of Linnaeus in Lapland dress. Efter i 1732 at have foretaget en Laplandsekspedition, som vitterlig var en bedrift, poserede Linné gerne i sit Laplandstøj. Bemærk, at han i højre hånd holder en Linnaea borealis, som var hans blomst, og i venstre en trolddomstromme. Naturligvis ønskede faderen, at hans søn skulle være præst som han selv, og han blev sat i latinskolen i Växjö for at blive student. Det gik imidlertid ikke så godt. På et tidspunkt spurgte faderen en lektor i Växjö, dr. Rothman, hvordan det gik med Carl, og fik et nedslående svar: Han bliver aldrig præst, han bør være tømrer eller skrædder, men han kan nok godt blive læge. Rothman tilbød at tage Carl i huset, gratis, og lære ham botanik og fysiologi for resten af gymnasietiden. Rothman havde de nyeste botaniske værker i sit bibliotek og viderebragte den viden til sin unge elev. Rothman lærte Carl botanik og at systematisere efter Tourneforts system. Han fik dermed afgørende indflydelse på Linnés fremtid. Efter gymnasiet påbegyndte Carl i august 1727 lægestudiet ved Lunds Universitet. Som naturiagttager noterede han sig floraens forskellighed fra Skåne til Småland, og han tog på udflugter med medstuderende for at studere planter og mineraler. Da Linné var hjemme i Råshult på sommerferie arbejdede han med sine naturhistoriske interesser, Having undertaken to participate in 1732 in a Lapland expedition, which was undoubtedly no mean feat, Linnaeus enjoyed posing in his Lapland dress. Notice that he is holding a Linnaea borealis, which was his flower, in his right hand, and in the left a magic drum. The father naturally wanted his son to become a clergyman like himself, and he was sent to the grammar school in Växjö to graduate as a student. However, things did not work out too well. At one point his father asked a senior master, dr. Rothman, how Carl was getting on and received a discouraging answer: He will never become a clergyman, he ought to become a carpenter or a tailor, but he might become a doctor. Rothman offered to let Carl live with him for free, and teach him botany and physiology for the rest of his time at grammar school. Rothman had the most recent botanical works in his library and passed on this knowledge to his young pupil. Rothman taught Carl botany and to systematize according to Tournefort s system. In this way he had a vital influence on Linnaeus future. After grammar school Carl started in August 1727 to study medicine at the University of Lund. As an observer of nature he noticed the diversity of the flora in Scania and Småland respectively, and he went on Nr. 31 Martin Hoffmans portræt af Linné i Laplandsdress / Martin Hoffman s portrait of Linnaeus in Lapland dress. måtte først faderen og senere moderen erkende, at han ikke skulle være præst. På et tidspunkt kom Rothman på besøg fra Växjö. Rothman foreslog et skift til Uppsala, hvor undervisningen formodedes at være bedre. Universitetet i Uppsala havde et stort ry på den tid, men reelt var storhedstiden forbi. Skønt der var et anatomisk teater i Uppsala kunne man ikke overvære en dissektion dér. Derfor brugte Linné et lille legat til at tage til Stockholm for at overvære en dissektion. Linné flyttede i foråret 1729 ind hos domprovsten Olof Celsius d.æ. ( ). Celsius var en af tidens polyhistorer, og han udgav bl.a. et værk om de bibelske planter, som man formoder at den unge Linné hjalp ham med. Celsius samarbejde med Linné om planterne i Uppsalas omegn fik stor betydning for Linné. Fra 1729 cirkulerede håndskrevne kopier af et lille værk af Linné: Præludia sponsaliarum plantarum (Afhandling om planternes forplantning). Nr. 33 Carl von Linné: Iter Lapponicum. U. st., 1888 excursions with fellow students to study plants and minerals. When at home in summer in Råshult, pursuing his interest in natural history, first Linnaeus father and later his mother had to recognise the fact that he was not cut out to become a clergyman. At one time Rothman paid a visit, and suggested a move to Uppsala where the tuition was thought to be of better quality. The University of Uppsala had a great reputation at that time, but in reality the golden days were over. Although Uppsala had an anatomical theatre, one could not watch a dissection there. Linnaeus therefore spent a small grant on going to Stockholm in order to be able to witness a dissection. In spring 1729 he moved in with dean Olof Celsius, the Elder ( ). Celsius was a polyhistor, and he published i.a. a work on the biblical plants, which one assumes that the young Linnaeus helped him with. Celsius collaboration with Linnaeus on the plants in the neighbourhood of Uppsala was to be of great importance to Linnaeus

17 Afhandlingen beskrev planternes seksualliv. Dette kom Rudbeck for øre, og han gjorde Uppsalas videnskabsselskab opmærksom på den unge student. Linné fik tilbudt botaniske ekskursioner og forelæsninger. Han holdt sin første forelæsning den 4. maj Forelæsningerne trak mange tilhørere. I juni 1730 flyttede Linné til Rudbecks hus, tilsyneladende i overensstemmelse med Celsius. Han skulle være huslærer hos Rudbeck. Med et kongeligt legat i ryggen tog Linné i 1732 på en rejse til Lapland. Lapland var på den tid stort set ukendt land. Lapperne levede som nomader og fulgte rensdyrenes vandringer og der var ikke mange svenskere i det store landområde. Linné gennemrejste dele af Lapland på en strabadserende tur og udsendte i 1737 en laplandsflora. Linné førte også dagbog. Nr. 33 Carl von Linné: Iter Lapponicum. U. st., Høgeugle,Surnia ulula; uspecifik bille; ruse; Dværg-Tranebær, Vaccinium microcarpum. From 1729 hand-written copies of a small work by Linnaeus were in circulation: Præludia sponsaliarum plantarum (Dissertation on the reproduction of plants). The dissertation described the sexual life of plants. This was made known to Olof Rudbeck the Younger ( ), and he told Uppsala s Learned Society about the young student. Linnaeus was offered botanical excursions and lectures. He gave his first lecture on 4. May The lectures attracted large audiences. In June 1730 Linnaeus moved to Rudbeck s house, apparently with the approval of Celsius. He was going to become a tutor at Rudbeck s. With the help of a royal grant, Linnaeus travelled to Lapland in At that time Lapland was virtually unknown territory. The Sami lived as nomads and followed the migration of the reindeer, and there were not many Swedes in the large area of land. Linnaeus travelled through parts of Lapland on a fatiguing journey and in 1737 published a Lapland flora. He also kept a diary. No. 33 Carl von Linné: Iter Lapponicum. U. st., Linnés dagbog fra den betydningsfulde laplandsrejse i 1732 blev først publiceret i 1888, men den er blevet udgivet flere gange senere. Linné skød uglen så grundigt, at han ikke kunne udstoppe den. Den lille Tranebær er blevet drejet en kvart omgang. Hawk owl, Surnia ulula; unspecific beetle; trap; Dwarf mulberry, Vaccinium microcarpum. Linnaeus diary from the important Lapland journey i 1732 was not published until Linnaeus shot the owl so thoroughly that he could not stuff it. The small mulberry has been turned a quarter way round. Nr. 35 Carl von Linné: Flora Lapponica. Amstelædami, ricius ( ). Af ham lånte han Rays Historia plantarum. Netop dette eksemplar er i Det Kongelige Biblioteks eje. Nr. 35 J. A. Fabricius ( ). Here he lent Rays Historia plantarum. This copy is in the possession of The Royal Library. No. 35 To år senere var Linné i Dalarna. Her fandt han i Falun fandt sin tilkommende hustru, Sara Elisabeth Moræa ( ), kaldet Sara Lisa. Linné skulle dog tage doktorgraden i medicin, før de kunne blive gift. Det måtte man til udlandet for at gøre. Valget faldt på Holland, hvor han i Harderwijk disputerede på en afhandling om malaria. På vejen til Holland besøgte han filologen J. A. Fab- Two years later, Linnaeus went to Dalarna In Falun he met his future wife, Sara Elisabeth Moræa ( ), called Sara Lisa. However, Linnaeus had to take a doctor s degree in medicine, before they could get married. To do this he had to go abroad. The choice fell on Holland, where he in Harderwijk defended his thesis on malaria. On the way to Holland Linnaeus visited the philologist Carl von Linné: Flora Lapponica. Amstelædami, Titelopslaget med idylliserende laplandsbillede. I Flora Lapponica (Laplands flora) publicerede Linné de botaniske resultater fra Laplandsrejsen. Kendskabet til Laplands flora blev udvidet kraftigt med denne bog. Carl von Linné: Flora Lapponica. Amstelædami, Title page with idyllicised picture from Lapland. In Flora Lapponica (Flora of Lapland) Linnaeus published the botanical results from the Lapland journey. The knowledge of Lapland s flora was considerably enlarged with this book

18 Nr. 36 Carl von Linné: Genera plantarum. Lugduni Batavorum, Nr. 37 Carl von Linné: Hortus Cliffortianus. Amstelaedami Nr. 36 Carl von Linné: Genera plantarum. Lugduni Batavorum, Tab I med planterens kønsorganer Blandt de skrifter, Linné udgav under sit ophold i Holland, var Genera plantarum (Planternes slægter) fra Den indeholder en gennemgang af planteslægterne. Linné skaffede sig venner og rige mæcener under opholdet i Holland. Det var medvirkende til, at hjemrejsen blev forsinket. Linné lod sig engagere af Georg Clifford, den hovedrige direktør for det hollandske ostindiske kompagni. Linné blev huslæge og direktør for Cliffords have, som lå mellem Leiden og Haarlem. Linné skulle systematisere planterne. No. 36 Carl von Linné: Genera plantarum. Lugduni Batavorum, Tab I with the sexual organs of plants. Among the works that Linnaeus published during his stay in Holland, was Genera plantarum (Genera of plants) from It contains an exposition of the plant genera. Linnaeus acquired friends and rich patrons during his stay in Holland. This was a contributory factor in delaying his return. He was engaged by Georg Clifford, the very rich director of the Dutch East Indian Company, and became famiy doctor as well as director of Clifford s garden, which was situated between Leiden and Haarlem. Linnaeus was to sys- Under opholdet i Holland var Linné på ture til Frankrig og England. Nr. 37 Carl von Linné: Hortus Cliffortianus. Amstelaedami Tab V. Collinsonia canadensis. Flerårig urt af myntefamilien. Mens Linné var direktør Georg Cliffords have udgav han et pragtværk om haven, nemlig Hortus Cliffortianus (den Cliffordske have) (Clifford betalte). Hjemme i Sverige kunne Linné gifte sig med Sara Lisa, og da der ikke var et ledigt professorat i Uppsala, nedsatte han sig som læge i Stockholm. Efter en træg start gik det fint, men da professoratet kom, søgte og fik han det og flyttede til Uppsala med familien. Linné forlod aldrig siden Sverige. Som professor i Uppsala havde Linné opsynet med den botaniske have, og han havde tjenestebolig lige ved. Her holdt han også forelæsninger. Linné trak umådelig mange tilhørere til sine forelæsninger og sine ekskursioner, ganske som han havde gjort det allerede i sin studentertid. Det forekom, at de sidst ankomne måtte stå på gaden og lytte til Linné gennem de åbentstående vinduer. Da han havde købt en lille herregård, Hammarby, nogle kilometer uden for Uppsala, henlagde han ofte undervisningen hertil. På Hammarby kan man bl.a. se Linnés arbejdsrum, som omtrent fra gulv til loft er tapetseret med plancher med planteafbildninger; på den måde gjorde han væggene til et opslagsværk. En professor i 1700-tallet havde mange opgaver. Som medicinsk professor gav Linné sexualundervisning, han foretog tre store forskningsrejser på opfordring fra rigets stænder. Formålet var at finde nye eller uudnyttede ressourcer, som kunne være til gavn for den svenske økonomi. Linné påtog sig også at skrive tematize the plants. During his stay in Holland Linnaeus undertook trips to France and England. Nr. 37 Carl von Linné: Hortus Cliffortianus. Amstelaedami Tab V. Collinsonia canadensis. Perennial herb of the mint family. While Linnaeus was director of Georg Clifford s garden, he published a magnificent work about the garden, namely Hortus Cliffortianus (The Clifford garden) (Clifford footed the bill). Back home in Sweden Linnaeus was able to marry Sara Lisa, and as there was no vacant professorship in Uppsala, he settled down as a doctor in Stockholm. After a rather slow start things were looking up, but when the professorship became available, he applied, got it and moved to Uppsala with his family. Linnaeus never left Sweden after that. As professor in Uppsala Linnaeus supervised the botanical garden, and he had an official residence close by. Here he also gave lectures. Linnaeus attracted very large audiences for his lectures and his excursions, just as he had done when he was a student. It sometimes happened that latecomers had to stand outside in the street and listen to him through the open windows. After buying a small manor house, Hammarby, some kilometres outside Uppsala, he often preferred to lecture there. At Hammarby you can i.a. see Linnaeus study, which almost from floor to ceiling is papered with plates showing pictures of plants; in this way he turned the walls into a reference work. A professor in the 1700 had a great variety of tasks. As professor of medicine Linnaeus gave lectures on sexology, and he made three major research trips at the request of the estates of the realm. The purpose was to find new or unexplored resources which 34 35

19 might benefit the Swedish economy. Linnaeus also took it upon himself to write articles of a generally informative nature. Some of these found their way into almanacs, which were printed in large impressions. No. 38 Carl von Linné: Skånska Resa [Scanian journey] Stockholm, Map of Scania. The first two journeys went to Öland and Gotland and to Västergötland. Because of the language, the travel accounts are considered classics in Swedish literature. No.40 Nr. 38 Carl von Linné: Skånska Resa. Stockholm, alment oplysende artikler. Nogle af dem blev bragt i almanakker, som blev trykt i meget store oplag. Nr. 38 Carl von Linné: Skånska Resa. Stockholm, Kort over Skåne. De to første rejser gik til Öland og Gotland og til Västergötland. Den sidste gik til Skåne. Rejseberetningerne betragtes på grund af deres sprog som klassikere i svensk litteratur. Almanach för åhret [Almanac for the year] Stockholm 1745 The beginning of Linnaeus article: Om Thée och Thée Drickande (On tea and tea drinking) Here Linnaeus has written Om Thée och Thée Drickande. The article fills the space at the bottom of the pages. Nr. 41 Carl Gustav Tessin: Museum Tessinianum... Herr Gr. Carl Gust. Tessins Naturalie-Samling. Holmiæ, Ammonites. Linné is the actual author of Museum Tessianum (Tessin s museum). During his stay in Stockholm Linné made friends with Carl Gustav Tessin ( ) (Swedish nobleman, politician, Nr. 40 Almanach för åhret Stockholm 1745 Nr. 40 Almanach för åhret Stockholm 1745 Begyndelsen af Linnés artikel: Om Thée och Thée Drickande. Her har Linné skrevet Om Thée och Thée Drickande. Artiklen fylder op forneden på siderne. Nr. 41 Carl Gustav Tessin: Museum Tessinianum... Herr Gr. Carl Gust. Tessins Naturalie-Samling. Holmiæ, Ammonitter. Linné er den egentlige forfatter til Museum Tessianum (Tessins museum). Under opholdet i Stockdiplomat etc.). For a while Linné stayed at Tessin s mansion. Like most researchers Linné conducted a sizeable correspondence with colleagues at home and abroad. The correspondence is being published and part of it can be seen on the Internet. Among the Danish contacts was the founder of Flora Danica, G.D. Oeder ( ) and (indirectly) count C.F. Raben ( ) who was himself a knowledgeable natural historian. Via the Swedish ambassador Raben sent a goldfish to The Royal Swedish Academy of Science, where it was passed on to Linné, who identified it. In return Raben was admitted as the first foreign member of The Academy. Raben had a butterfly farm on Lolland, where he hatched butterflies in great numbers. He also corresponded with René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur ( ) in France. Réaumur was the foremost expert on insects at that time and is i.a. known for his temperature scale

20 ske medlem af Vetenskapsakademien. Raben havde et regulært sommerfugleri på Lolland, hvor han klækkede sommerfugle i stor stil. Raben på sin side korresponderede med René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur ( ) i Frankrig. Réaumur var tidens største insektkender og kendes bl.a. for sin temperaturskala. Rabens korrespondance med Réaumur strakte sig over mange år. Réaumur var tidens største kapacitet på insekter og udgav et seksbindsværk om disse dyr. Raben kunne supplere Réaumurs oplysninger på flere punkter og han sendte også billeder af nogle af de lollandske sommerfugle. Rabens kopibøger findes på Landsarkivet for Sjælland m.v., hvorfra de er udlånt til udstillingen. I kopibøgerne findes også et upubliceret manuskript. Det er tydeligt, at Raben havde planer om en udgivelse; vi ved ikke i dag, hvorfor projektet gik i stå. No. 42 Butterfly watercolour from C. F. Raben s ( ) butterfly work on Lolland in the mid-1700s. The artist is Søren Abildgaard ( ). Oak egger, Lasiocompa quercus. Caterpillars, chrysalis and fully grown female. During the period from about 1740 to about 1753 Raben employed the artist and geologist Søren Abildgaard ( ) to do watercolours of the butterflies. The watercolours are of considerable artistic and scientific quality. Watercolours (12 vols. plus some loose plates) and notes were acquired by the then National Library of Natural Science and Medicine at the auction on Aalholm in Nr. 41 Carl Gustav Tessin: Museum Tessinianum... Herr Gr. Carl Gust. Tessins Naturalie- Samling. Holmiæ, holm stiftede Linné og Carl Gustav Tessin ( ) (svensk adelsmand, politiker, diplomat m.v.) venskab. Linné boede en tid i Tessins palæ. Som de fleste andre forskere havde Linné en betydelig korrespondance med kolleger i ind- og udland. Korrespondancen er under udgivelse og kan for en del ses på Internettet. Blandt de danske kontakter var grundlæggeren af Flora Danica, G. C. Oeder ( ) og (indirekte) grev C. F. Raben ( ), som selv var en kyndig naturhistoriker. Raben sendte via den svenske ambassadør en guldfisk til Svenska Vetenskapsakademien, hvor den blev givet til Linné, som beskrev den. Raben blev som tak optaget som det første udenland- Nr. 42 Sommerfugleakvarel fra C. F. Raben ( ) / Butterfly watercolour from C. F. Raben ( ) Raben s correspondence with Réaumur covered a period of many years. Réaumur was the greatest authority on insects in his time and published a six-volume work about these animals. Raben was able to supplement Réaumur s observations on several points and he also sent pictures of some of the Lolland butterflies. Raben s copy books are placed in The Provincial Archives of Zealand etc., from which they are borrowed for the exhibition. In the copy books is also an unpublished manuscript. It is obvious that Raben was planning a publication; we do not know today why the project came to a halt. Nr. 42 Sommerfugleakvarel fra C. F. Rabens ( ) sommerfuglearbejde på Lolland i midten af 1700-tallet. Kunstneren er Søren Abildgaard ( ). Egespinder, Lasiocompa quercus. Larver, puppe og voksen hun. I perioden ca til ca havde Raben ansat arkivtegneren og geologen Søren Abildgaard ( ) til at lave akvareller af sommerfuglene. Der er tale om akvareller af høj kunstnerisk og naturhistorisk kvalitet. Akvareller (12 bind plus en del løse plancher) og noter blev erhvervet til det daværende Danmarks Natur- og Lægevidenskabelige bibliotek på auktionen på Aalholm i Raben arbejdede også med sommerfuglepræparater. Vi ved ikke, hvor mange han har haft og kun ganske få er bevaret. Nationalmuseet ejer nogle, og andre er i privat eje. På 250 års afstand syner sommerfuglene ikke af meget mellem glaspladerne, men de er bemærkelsesværdige derved, at det er Danmarks ældste - og nogle af de ældste i verden. Raben also looked at butterfly samples. We do not know how many he had and only a few have been preserved. The National Museum owns some, and others are in private collections. From a distance of 250 years the butterflies do not look very important between the glass plates, but they are remarkable in that they are the oldest examples in Denmark and some of the oldest in the world. 3. Linnaeus naming and systematics Before Linnaeus there was no fixed method for the naming of animals and plants. Usually, one gave the individual species a name, which also was a kind of short description of the species or of its biology. By and by, as more and more species became known, the names grew in length. The result was that different scientists could give the same species different names, and one might be in doubt as to which species one was dealing with. In the first editions of Systema Naturae (Nature s system) Linnaeus also used these long names, but with Species plantarum (Species of plants), 1753 and the 10. edition of Systema Naturae, 1758 Linnaeus consistently followed his new method