Key words : gender, difference, brain, behavior

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1 総説 Key words : gender, difference, brain, behavior I : : Japanese Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience

2 Boyke et al., 2008 ; Imfeld et al., 2009 ; Scholz et al., 2010 ; Woollett & Maguire, 2011 ; Yotsumoto et al., 2008, % 5% II. PubMed brain AND sex OR gender OR sex difference OR gender difference AND voxel* OR morphometry OR diffusion tensor imaging OR magnetic resonance imaging OR DTI or MRI OR VBM ,600 Ruigrok et al., De Lacoste - Utamsing & Holloway, 1982 Ingalhalikar 949 Vol. 23 No

Ingalhalikar et al., 2013 5,000 Ritchie et al.

, 2015 116 A B A 33% 33% B 33% 33% 3 3 Spence, 1993 Joel

3 Ingalhalikar et al., ,000 Ritchie et al., 2018 Joel Joel et al., A B A 33% 33% B 33% 33% 3 3 Spence, 1993 Joel 2015 III Mehl Mehl et al., Japanese Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience

4 2. Shepard & Metzler, 1971 Voyer et al., Coutrot Coutrot et al., 2018 r= OECD PISA Programme for International Student Assessment Kersey et al., 2018 Copur - Gencturk et al., 2020 ; Leedy et al., gender variability hypothesis Halpern et al., 2007 ; Johnson et al., 2008 STEM STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics O Dea et al., 2018 Hyde et al., Eisenegger et al., 2010 O Donnell & McLachlan, 2012 Vol. 23 No

5 Gneezy et al., R.K. Koeske & Koeske, 1975 R.D. Koeske, 1975 IV OECD Yasukawa & Nomura, 2014 Tsugawa et al., ,000 De Bellis et al., Lenroot et al., V. 66 Japanese Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience

6 1 Boyke, J., Driemeyer, J., Gaser, C., Buchel, C., & May, A Training - Induced Brain Structure Changes in the Elderly. Journal of Neuroscience 28 28, Copur - Gencturk, Y., Cimpian, J.R., Lubienski, S.T., & Thacker, I Teachers Bias Against the Mathematical Ability of Female, Black, and Hispanic Students. Educational Researcher 49 1, Coutrot, A., Silva, R., Manley, E., de Cothi, W., Sami, S., Bohbot, V.D., Wiener, J.M., Hölscher, C., Dalton, R.C., Hornberger, M., & Spiers, H.J Global Determinants of Navigation Ability. Current Biology 28 17, e De Bellis, M.D., Keshavan, M.S., Beers, S.R., Hall, J., Frustaci, K., Masalehdan, A., Noll, J., & Boring, A.M Sex differences in brain maturation during childhood and adolescence. Cerebral Cortex 11 6, De Lacoste - Utamsing, C., & Holloway, R.L Sexual dimorphism in the human corpus callosum. Science , Eisenegger, C., Naef, M., Snozzi, R., Heinrichs, M., & Fehr, E Prejudice and truth about the effect of testosterone on human bargaining behaviour. Nature , Gneezy, U., Leonard, K.L., & List, J.A Gender Differences in Competition : Evidence. From a Matrilineal and a Patriarchal Society. Econometrica 77 5, Halpern, D.F., Benbow, C.P., Geary, D.C., Gur, R.C., Hyde, J.S., & Gernsbacher, M.A The science of sex differences in science and mathematics. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, Supplement 8 1, Hyde, J.S., Lindberg, S.M., Linn, M.C., Ellis, A.B., & Williams, C.C Gender Similarities Characterize Math Performance. Science 321 July, Imfeld, A., Oechslin, M.S., Meyer, M., Loenneker, T., & Jancke, L White matter plasticity in the corticospinal tract of musicians : A diffusion tensor imaging study. NeuroImage 46 3, Ingalhalikar, M., Smith, A., Parker, D., Satterthwaite, T.D., Elliott, M.A., Ruparel, K., Hakonarson, H., Gur, R.E., Gur, R.C., & Verma, R Sex differences in the structural connectome of the human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 2, Isa, N., & Chinen, A Gender disparities in academic performance and motivation in STEM subjects in Japan. Japan Labor Review 13 3, Joel, D., Berman, Z., Tavor, I., Wexler, N., Gaber, O., Stein, Y., Shefi, N., Pool, J., Urchs, S., Margulies, D.S., Liem, F., Hänggi, J., Jäncke, L., & Assaf, Y Sex beyond the genitalia : The human brain mosaic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , Johnson, W., Carothers, A., & Deary, I.J Sex Differences in Variability in General Intelligence : A New Look at the Old Question. Perspectives on Psychological Science : A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science 3 6, Kersey, A.J., Braham, E.J., Csumitta, K.D., Libertus, M.E., & Cantlon, J.F No intrinsic gender differences in children s earliest numerical abilities. Npj Science of Learning Koeske, R.D Premenstrual Emotionality Is Biology Destiny? Women & Health 1 3, Koeske, R.K., & Koeske, G.F An attributional approach to moods and the menstrual cycle. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31 3, Leedy, M.G., LaLonde, D., & Runk, K Gender Equity in Mathematics : Beliefs of Students, Parents, and Teachers. School Science and Mathematics 103 6, Lenroot, R.K., Gogtay, N., Greenstein, D.K., Wells, E.M., Wallace, G.L., Clasen, L.S., Blumenthal, J.D., Lerch, J., Alex, P., Evans, A.C., Thompson, P.M., & Giedd, J.N Sexual Dimorphism of Brain Developmental Trajectories during Childhood and Adolescence 36 4, Mehl, M.R., Vazire, S., Ramírez - Esparza, N., Slatcher, R.B., & Pennebaker, J.W Are women really more talkative than men? Science , O Dea, R.E., Lagisz, M., Jennions, M.D., & Nakagawa, S Gender differences in individual variation in academic grades fail to fit expected patterns for STEM. Nature Communications O Donnell, L., & McLachlan, R.I The role of testosterone in spermatogenesis. Testosterone : Action, Deficiency, Substitution, Fourth Edition 15, Ritchie, S.J., Cox, S.R., Shen, X., Lombardo, M.V., Reus, L.M., Alloza, C., Harris, M.A., Alderson, H.L., Hunter, S., Neilson, E., Liewald, D.C.M., Auyeung, B., Whalley, H.C., Lawrie, S.M., Gale, C.R., Bastin, M.E., McIntosh, A.M., & Deary, I.J Sex differences in the adult human brain : Evidence from 5216 UK biobank participants. Cerebral Cortex 28 8, Vol. 23 No

7 24 Ruigrok, A.N.V., Salimi - Khorshidi, G., Lai, M.C., Baron - Cohen, S., Lombardo, M.V., Tait, R.J., & Suckling, J A meta - analysis of sex differences in human brain structure. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 39, Scholz, J., Klein, M.C., Behrens, T.E.J., & Johansen - berg, H Training induces changes in white matter architecture. Nat Neurosci , Shepard, R.N., & Metzler, J Mental rotation of three - dimensional objects. Science , Spence, J.T Gender - related traits and gender ideology : evidence for a multifactorial theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 4, Tsugawa, Y., Jena, A.B., Figueroa, J.F., Orav, E.J., Blumenthal, D.M., & Jha, A.K Comparison of hospital mortality and readmission rates for medicare patients treated by male vs female physicians. JAMA Internal Medicine 177 2, Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M.P Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities : a meta - analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin 117 2, Woollett, K., & Maguire, E.A Acquiring the knowledge of London s layout drives structural brain changes. Current Biology 21 24, Yasukawa, K., & Nomura, K The perception and experience of gender - based discrimination related to professional advancement among Japanese physicians. Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine 232 1, Yotsumoto, Y., Chang, L.H., Ni, R., Pierce, R., Andersen, G.J., Watanabe, T., & Sasaki, Y White matter in the older brain is more plastic than in the younger brain. Nature Communications 5, Yotsumoto, Y., Watanabe, T., & Sasaki, Y Different Dynamics of Performance and Brain Activation in the Time Course of Perceptual Learning. Neuron 57 6, , Gender differences in brain and behavior Yuko Yotsumoto The University of Tokyo, Department of Life Sciences Key words : gender, difference, brain, behavior In cognitive neuroscience and psychology research, we sometimes treat gender as the independent variable and examine whether or not there is a gender difference in the measured independent variable. Interpreting gender differences revealed in research requires an understanding that the differences are not sexually dimorphic, that they are subject to publication bias, that they do not necessarily imply innate causality, and that gender differences in brain and behavior are multidimensional. This paper will discuss the interpretation of such differences using examples of commonly believed gender differences. I will then give examples of how gender differences have been used to justify discrimination and socioeconomic inequality. Finally, the importance of correctly understanding the meaning of gender differences will be discussed. 68 Japanese Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience

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