1 Brainstorming i grupper er bedre end at arbejde alene (Osborn 1953) Udsæt bedømmelse Gå efter kvantitet - mange ideer 2 Osborn, A.F. (1953) Applied imagination: Principles and procedures of creative problem solving. New York, NY: Charles Scribner s Sons.
Hvorfor tror du at grupper er godt for kreativitet? 3 Ved implementering (Coch & French 1948) Gruppedeltagelse reducerer modstand Reducerer NIH attitude (not invented here) 4
Kognitiv stimulering i grupper er vigtig (Brown, Tumeo, Larey & Paulus 1998; Paulus 2000; Paulus, Larey & Dzindolet 2000) Paulus, P. B., Larey T. S., & Dzindolet, M. T. (2000). Creativity in groups and teams. In M. Turner (Ed.). Groups at work: Advanced in theory and research (pp. 319-338). Hillsdale, NJ: Hampton. 5 Paulus, P. B. (2000). Groups, teams and creativity: The creative potential of idea generating groups. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 49, 237-262. Brown, V., Tumeo, M., Larey, T. S., & Paulus, P. B. (1998). Modeling cognitive interactions during group brainstorming. Small Group Research, 29, 495-526. MEN Grupper genererer væsentlig færre ideer end det sammen antal individer, der arbejder alene (Mullen, Johnson & Salas 1991; Diehl & Stroebe 1991) Grupper genererer dårligere ideer end individer, der arbejder alene (Brown & Paulus 1996) Diehl, M. & Stroebe, W. (1991) Productivity Loss in Idea-Generating Groups: Tracking Down the Blocking Effect". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61 (3): 392 403 6 Brown, V; Paulus, P. B (1996). "A simple dynamic model of social factors in group brainstorming". Small Group Research 27: 91 114 Mullen, B., Johnson, C. & Salas, E. (1991). Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: A meta-analytic integration. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 12, 3-23.
Hvorfor tror du at grupper er skidt for kreativitet? 7 Reducerer standarden for hvad man kan snakke om (Parlof & Handlon 1964) Dårligere ideer på grund af social matching (Brown & Paulus 1996) 8 Brown, V; Paulus, P. B (1996). "A simple dynamic model of social factors in group brainstorming". Small Group Research 27: 91 114 Parlof, M. D., and Handlon, J. H. (1964). The in[luence of criticalness on creative problem solving, Psychiatry, 27, 17-27
Individer overvurderer deres kreative bidrag i gruppearbejde (Paulus, Dzindolet, Poletes, & Gamacho 1993) For meget fokus på at anvende egen viden, fremfor at kombinere viden imellem gruppedeltagere (Stasser 1999) Konkurrence mellem at generere egne ideer og at lytte til andres ideer (Mulligan & Hartman 1996) 9 Mulligan, N. & Hartman, M. (1996). Divided attention and indirect memory tests. Memory and Cognition, 24, 453-465 Stasser, S. G. (1999). The uncertain role of unshared information in collective choice. In L. Thomson & J. Levine (Eds.). Shared knowledge in organisations (pp. 49-69). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Paulus, P. B.; Dzindolet, M. T., Poletes, G.,Camacho, L. M. (1993). "Perception of performance in group brainstorming: The illusion of group productivity". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 (4): 575 586. Arousal kan forklare hvorfor brainstorming ofte mindsker kreativiteten (Lindgren & Lindgren 1965) Frygt for kritik fra andre (Diehl & Stroebe 1987) 10 Diehl, M. & Stroebe, W. (1987). Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: Towards the solution of a riddle. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 497-509. Lindgren, H. C., & Lindgren, F. (1965). Brainstorming and orneriness as facilitators of creativity. Psychological Reports, 16, 577 583
free-riding (Karau & Williams 1993; Kerr & Bruun 1983) Produktivitetsproblemer (Diehl & Stroebe 1991; Lamm & Trommsdorff 1973) Diehl, M. & Stroebe, W. (1991). Productivity loss in idea-generating groups: Tracking down the blocking effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 497-509. Lamm, H. & Trommsdorff, G. (1973). Group versus individual performance on tasks requiring ideational pro[iciency (brainstorming). European Journal of Social Psychology, 3, 361-387. Kerr, N. L. & Bruun, S. E. (1983). Dispensability of member effort and group motivation losses: Free-rider effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 78-94. 11 Karau, S. J. & Williams, K. D. (1993). Social loa[ing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 681-706. Ofte domineret af en eller to i gruppen, og meningsløs argumentering kan ofte lede til fastlåste situationer (Nunamaker, Dennis, Valacich, Vogel & George 1991) Følger den hierarkiske, faglige eller sociale leder (Finkelstein 1992) 12 Finkelstein, S. (1992). Power in top management teams: Dimensions, measurement and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 35, 505-538. Nunamaker, J. F., Dennis, A. R., Valacich, J. S., Vogel, D. R., & George, J. F. (1991). Electronic Meeting Systems to Support Group Work. Communications of the ACM, 34, 40-61
Større grupper mindsker kreativitet for prisen for at være anderledes (original) er højere Socialt press kan ende med at man acceptere andres ideer (Janis 1982) 13 Janis, I. L. (1982). Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and FIascos, Second Edition, Houghton-Mif[lin, Boston. Kozbelt, A., Beghetto, R. A. & Runco, M. A (2010). Theories of creativity. In James C. Kaufman & Robert J. Sternberg, The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Disse faktorer leder til en dårlig start på gruppearbejde Den langsomme start skaber en nedadgående social spiral som kan skabe en langsom kultur i gruppen (Camacho & Paulus 1995; Paulus & Dzindolet 1993) 14 Paulus P. B. & Dzindolet, M. T. (1993). Social in[luence processes in group brainstorming. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 575-586. Camacho, L. M. & Paulus, P. B. (1995). The role of social anxiousness in group brainstorming. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 1071-1080.
Brainstorming og lignende metoder ser ud til at have fejlet Paulus og Yang foreslår en ny model til gruppearbejde: A Brain-writing - Attention - Incubation model (Paulus & Yang 2000) 15 Paulus, P. B. & Yang, H. (2000). Idea generation in Groups: A basis for creativity in organisations, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 82, 76-87. Brain-writing - Attention - Incubation model 1. Individuel idegenerering (brain-writing) 2. Roter ideerne og alle læser hinanden ideer for inspiration (attention) 3. Individuel idegenerering uden rotation (incubation) 16
Vigtige lærestreger for gruppearbejde Erstat meget af den verbale interaktion med skriftligt arbejde (Nunamaker, Briggs & Mittleman 1995) Det meste af kreativ arbejde er udført individuelt Interaktion for at lave kognitiv stimulering - IKKE for idegenerering 17 Nunamaker, J. F., Jr. Brigs, R. O. & Mittleman, D. D. (1995). Electronic meeting systems: Ten years of lessons learned. In D. Coleman & R. Khanna (Eds.), Groupware: Technology and applications (pp. 149-193). Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Individuel brainstorming er bedre end gruppe brainstorming (Furnham & Yazdanpanahi 1995) Individuel idegenerering skal være efterfulgt af gruppebrainstorming - ikke den anden vej rundt (Finke & Ward 1992) 18 Furnham, A., & Yazdanpanahi, T. (1995). Personality differences and group versus individual brainstorming. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 73-80 Finke, R. A., Ward, T. B. & Smith, S. M. (1992). Creative cognition: theory, research and applications, Cambrigde, MA, MIT Press